Practical  Cinematography 

and  its  Applications 


Practical  Cinematography 

and  its  Applications 


By 

Frederick  A.  Talbot 


Author  of 
Moving  Pictures"  etc. 


Philadelphia 

J.     B.     LIPPINCOTT     COMPANY 

London  :  William  Heinemann 

MCMXIII 


RADHURY,    AGNEW,   &  CO     LD.,    PRINTERS, 
LONDON  AND  TONBRIDGE 


zs-o 

ft* 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  has  been  written  with  the  express 
purpose  of  assisting  the  amateur — the  term  is 
used  in  its  broadest  sense  as  a  distinction  from 
the  salaried,  attached  professional  worker — who 
is  attracted  towards  cinematography.  It  is  not  a 
technical  treatise,  but  is  written  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  enable  the  tyro  to  grasp  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  art,  and  the  apparatus 
employed  in  its  many  varied  applications. 

While  it  is  assumed  that  the  reader  has 
practised  ordinary  snap-shot  and  still-life  work, 
and  thus  is  familiar  with  the  elements  of  photo- 
graphy, yet  the  subject  is  set  forth  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  enable  one  who  never  has  attempted 
photography  to  take  moving-pictures. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  hoped  that  the  volume 
may  prove  of  use  to  the  expert  hand,  by  intro- 
ducing him  to  what  may  be  described  as  the 
higher  branches  of  the  craft.  The  suggestions 
and  descriptions  concerning  these  applications 
may  prove  of  value  to  any  who  may  be  tempted 
to  labour  in  one  or  other  of  the  various  fields 
mentioned. 

326305 


vi  PREFACE 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume  I  have 
received  valuable  assistance  from  several  friends 
who  have  been  associated  intimately  with  the 
cinematographic  art  from  its  earliest  days : — 
J.  Bamberger,  Esq.,  of  the  Motograph  Company, 
Limited,  James  Williamson,  Esq.,  of  the  William- 
son Kinematograph  Company,  Limited,  Kodak 
Limited,  Messrs.  Jury,  Limited,  and  Monsieur 
Lucien  Bull,  the  assistant-director  of  the  Marey 
Institute,  to  whom  I  am  especially  indebted  for 
facilities  to  visit  that  unique  institution,  and  the 
investigation  at  first  hand  of  its  varied  work,  the 
loan  of  the  photographs  of  the  many  experiments 
which  have  been,  and  still  are  being,  conducted 
at  the  French  "  Cradle  of  Cinematography,"  and 
considerable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of 
the  text 

FREDERICK  A.  TALBOT. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.      ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES  OF  THE  ART  I 

II.       THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   CINEMATOGRAPHY     .            .  13 

III.  THE     MOVING-PICTURE       CAMERA      AND       ITS 

MECHANISM 21 

IV.  THE    CAMERA    AND    HOW    TO    USE   IT             •            •  35 
V.      HAND   CAMERA   CINEMATOGRAPHY     .           .           .5! 

VI.       DEVELOPING   THE   FILM 62 

VII.      PRINTING    THE   POSITIVE               ....  79 

VIII.      ABERRATIONS  OF  ANIMATED  PHOTOGRAPHY        .  94 

IX.      SLOWING-DOWN    RAPID   MOVEMENTS              .            .  IO8 

X.      SPEEDING-UP   SLOW  MOVEMENTS        .  .  .124 

XI.      CONTINUOUS    CINEMATOGRAPHIC  RECORDS            .  135 

XII.       RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY  :     HOW    THE     X-RAYS 
ARE    USED     IN     CONJUNCTION     WITH     THE 

MOVING-PICTURE   CAMERA    ....  147 

XIII.  COMBINING    THE   MICROSCOPE  AND  THE  ULTRA- 

MICROSCOPE     WITH     THE     MOVING-PICTURE 

CAMERA        . •   '      ,,          .           .  -     _  •,          .           .  l6l 

XIV.  MICRO-MOTION        STUDY:        HOW       INCREASED 

WORKSHOP      EFFICIENCY      IS        OBTAINABLE 

WITH  MOVING-PICTURES         ....  174 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XV.       THE   MOTION    PICTURE   AS     AN    AID     TO    SCIEN- 
TIFIC  INVESTIGATION 185 

XVI.      THE     MILITARY     VALUE     OF     THE     CINEMATO- 
GRAPH   IQ7 

XVII.      THE   PREPARATION    OF   EDUCATIONAL   FILMS     .       2OQ 
XVIII.      PHOTO -PLAYS    AND   HOW   TO  WRITE   THEM          .      224 

XIX.      RECENT     DEVELOPMENTS    IN    STAGE    PRODUC- 
TIONS   238 

XX.      WHY         NOT          NATIONAL          CINEMATOGRAPH 

LABORATORIES  ? 248 


INDEX 259 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


How  to  take   Moving-pictures  of  Wild  Animals  in 

safety     .....          Frontispiece 

A  Moving- picture  Expedition  into  the  Indian  Jungle          4 
Polar  Bear  Diving  ......         5 

A  Lion  and  Lioness  at  Lunch  .          .         .          .10 

Caught ! ii 

Operator  and  Camera  buried  in  a  Hole  .  .  .14 
Making  Moving- pictures  of  Wild  Rabbits  .  .  14 

Nest  of  King  Regulus,  showing  curious  Suspension  .  15 
Mother  King  Regulus  feeding  her  Young  .  .  .15 
The  Jury  Moving-picture  Camera  .'  .  .  .24 
The  Williamson  Topical  Camera  and  Tripod  .  .  25 
The  Williamson  Camera  threaded  for  Use  .  .  42 
Lens  of  the  Williamson  Camera  .  .  .  -43 
Adjustable  Shutter  of  the  Jury  Camera  ...  43 
The  "  Aeroscope  "  Moving-picture  Hand  Camera  .  52 
Compressed  Air  Reservoirs  of  the  "  Aeroscope " 

Camera.  .  .  :.  .  .  :  ..  .;....  .  53 
Lens,  Shutter,  Mechanism  and  Gyroscope  ,  .  56 
Loading  the  "  Aeroscope  "  Camera  .  .  -^  •*  .  .  57 
Mr.  Cherry  Kearton  steadying  himself  upon  a  Precipice  58 
Mr.  Cherry  Kearton  slung  over  a  Cliff  ...  58 
Vulture  preparing  to  Fly  .....  59 
A  Well-equipped  Dark  Room  showing  Arrangement  of 

the  Trays 64 

Winding  the  Developing  Frame  ....  65 
Film  transferred  from  Developing  Frame  to  Drying 

Drum     .          .          .          .          .-.;-.         .       72 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
FACE 

Film  Wound  on  Frame  and  placed  in  Developing  Tray  73 
The  Jury  Combined  Camera  and  Printer  ...  73 

The  Williamson  Printer 84 

Water  Beetle  attacking  a  Worm  ....  85 
Marey's  Apparatus  for  taking  Rapid  Movements  .  112 
Cinematographing  the  Beat  of  a  Pigeon's  Wing  .  113 
First  Marey  Apparatus  for  Cinematographing  the 

Opening  of  a  Flower  .  .  .  .  .128 
First  Motion  Pictures  of  an  Opening  Flower  .  .129 
Development  of  a  Colony  of  Marine  Organisms  .  129 

Continuous  Moving-picture  Records  of  Heart-beats  .  136 
Continuous  Moving-pictures  of  Heart-beats  of  an 

Excited  Person        .          .          .          .          .          .137 

Continuous  Cinematography — Palpitations  of  a 

Rabbit's  Heart         .          .          .          .          .          .142 

Stero-motion  Orbit  of  a  Machinist's  Hand          .          .     143 
Lines  of  Light  indicating  to-and-fro  hand  Movements     143 
A  wonderful  X-ray  Film  made  by  M.  J.  Carvallo       .     148 
Moving  X-ray  Pictures  of  the  Digestion  of  a  Fowl     .     149 
Stomach  and  Intestine  of  a  Trout    .         .         .         -152 
Digestive  Organs  of  the  Frog  .          .          .         .          .152 

Lizard  Digesting  its  Food        .....     152 

X-ray  Moving-pictures  of  the  Bending  of  the  Knee  .  153 
X-ray  Film  of  the  Opening  of  the  Hand  .  .  .  153 
Micro-Cinematograph  used  at  Marey  Institute  for 

investigating  minute  Aquatic  Life  .  .  .164 
Micro-cinematography :  The  Proboscis  of  the  Blow 

Fly 165 

Micro-cinematograph  used  at  the  Marey  Institute  .  170 
One  of  Dr.  Comandon's  Galvanic  Experiments  with 

Paramcecia      .         .         .          .         .         .          .171 

Micro-cinematography  :  Blow  Fly  eating  Honey        .     176 
The  Ingenious  Gilbreth  Clock  .          .         .          .177 

Rack,  showing  Disposition  of  Component  Parts,  for 

Test       . 177 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

MOM 

PAGE 

Film  of  Workman  assembling  Machine  .  .  .182 
Film  of  Rack  and  Bench,  Floor  marked  off  into 

Squares,  and  Clock 182 

Cinematographing  a  Man's  Work  against  Time  .  183 

Moving- pictures  of  a  Steam  Hammer  Ram  .  .188 
Dr.  Fuch's  Apparatus  for  taking  Moving-pictures  of 

the  Operations  of  a  Steam  Hammer  .  .  .189 
Wonderful  Apparatus  devised  by  Mr.  Lucien  Bull  for 

taking  2,000  Pictures  per  second  .  .  .190 
Moving-pictures  of  the  Ejection  of  a  Cartridge  from 

an  Automatic  Pistol 191 

Motion  Photographs  of  the  Splintering  of  a  Bone  by 

a  Bullet 191 

Soldiers  Firing  at  the  "  Life  Target  "...  204 
Front  View  of  the  "  Life  Target "  showing  Screen 

Opening  - 205 

Screen  Mechanism  of  the  "  Life  Target  "  .  .  .  206 
Cinematographing  Hedge-row  Life  under  Difficulties  .  207 

Moorhen  Sitting  on  her  Nest 212 

The  Young  Chick  pierces  the  Shell  .         .         .         .212 

Chick  Emerging  from  the  Shell         .         .         .         .213 

Newly  Hatched  Chick  struggling  to  its  Feet      .          .213 
Chick,  Exhausted  by  its  Struggles,  Rests  in  the  Sun  .     214 
The  Chick  takes  to  the  Water  .         .         .         .     214 

Fight  between  a  Lobster  and  an  Octopus  .         .     215 

Story  of  the  Water  Snail          .         .         .         .         '     2*5 

The  Head  of  the  Tortoise         .         .         ...     218 

The  Hawk  Moth    .         .         .         ...         .218 

Snake  Shedding  its  Skin  or  "  Slough  "      .         .         .     219 
The  Snake  and  its  Shed  Slough        .         .         .         .219 

Exterior  View  of  Dummy  Cow  .  .  *  •  .  226 
Mr.  Frank  Newman  and  Camera  hidden  within  Tree 

Trunk  .  *  .-..-*•."••  .  .  .  227 
Lizard  with  Spider  in  its  Mouth  .  .  .  .  .  240 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PACE 

Digestive  Organs  and  Eggs  of  a  Water  Flea       .          .241 
Moving- picture  Naturalist  and  the  Lizard  at  Home    .     241 
A  Novel  "  Hide,"  with  Camera  Fifteen  Feet  above 

Ground  ........     250 

"  Hide  "  Uncovered  showing  Working  Platform          .     251 

IN   TEXT 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Mechanism  of  Camera  showing  Threading  of  Film  28 

2.  The  "  Pin  "  Frame   ......  67 

3.  The  First  Picture  of  the  Four-spoke  Wheel  .  97 

4.  Apparent    Stillness    of    Spokes    while    Wheel    is 

Moving          .......       98 

5.  Apparent    Backward    Motion    of    Spokes    while 

Wheel  is  Running  Forwards    ....       99 

6.  When  Wheel  is  seen  to  be  Moving  Naturally         .      100 

7.  Curious  Illusion  of  seeing  Twice  the  Number  of 

Spokes  in  the  Wheel        .....      102 

8.  Mechanism  of  the  Nogues  Camera       .          .          .115 

9.  The  Ingenious  Radio-cinematographic  Apparatus 

devised  by  Monsieur  M.  J.  Carvallo  .          .151 

10.  Dr.          Comandon's          Radio  -  cinematographic 

Apparatus .     157 


PRACTICAL 
CINEMATOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  I 

ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES  OF  THE  ART 

PROFIT  and  pleasure  combine  to  win  recruits  for 
the  art  of  animated  photography.  As  an  enter- 
tainment offered  to  the  public,  the  moving- 
pictures  have  had  no  rival.  Their  popularity 
has  been  remarkable  and  universal.  It  increases 
daily,  and,  since  we  are  only  now  beginning  to 
see  the  magnitude  of  what  the  cinematograph 
can  effect,  it  is  not  likely  to  diminish.  This 
development  has  stirred  the  ambition  of  the 
amateur  or  independent  photographer  because 
the  field  is  so  vast,  fertile,  and  promising. 
Remunerative  reward  is  obtainable  practically 
in  every  phase  of  endeavour  so  long  as  the 
elements  of  novelty  or  originality  are  manifest. 
The  result  is  that  it  is  attracting  one  and  all. 
Animated  photography  can  convey  so  fascinating 

P.C.  B 


2       PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

and  convincing  a  record  of  scenes  and  events 
that  many  persons — sportsmen,  explorers,  and 
travellers — make  use  of  it. 

From  the  commercial  point  of  view  the  issue  is 
one  of  magnetic  importance.  In  all  quarters  there 
is  an  increasing  demand  for  films  of  prominent 
topical  interest,  either  of  general  or  local  signi- 
ficance. The  proprietors  of  picture  palaces  have 
discovered  that  no  films  draw  better  audiences 
than  these.  If  they  deal  with  a  prominent  incident 
like  a  visit  of  royalty  to  the  neighbourhood,  an 
important  sporting  event,  a  public  ceremony,  or 
even,  such  is  human  nature,  with  some  disaster 
to  life  or  property,  they  will  make  a  stronger 
appeal  for  a  few  days  than  the  general  film  fare 
offered  at  the  theatre,  because  the  episode  which 
is  uppermost  in  the  mind  of  the  public  is  what 
draws  and  compels  public  attention.  Even,  it 
would  seem,  when  the  reality  itself  has  just 
been  witnessed  by  the  audience,  its  photographic 
reproduction  proves  more  attractive  than  all  else. 

The  picture  palace,  indeed,  is  assuming  the 
functions  of  the  illustrated  newspaper,  and  is 
governed  by  like  laws.  The  more  personal  and 
immediate  the  news,  the  more  pleased  are  the 
beholders.  So  there  is  an  increasing  effort  to 
supply  upon  the  screen  in  life  and  motion  what 
the  papers  are  recording  in  print  and  illustration. 
One  can  almost  hear  the  phrase  that  will  soon 


ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES    3 

become  general,  "  Animated  news  of  the  moment." 
Already  the  French  are  showing  us  the  way. 
In  Paris  one  is  able  to  visit  a  picture  palace  for 
25  centimes  at  any  time  between  noon  and  mid- 
night and  see,  upon  the  screen,  the  events  of  the 
hour  in  photographic  action.  As  fresh  items 
of  news,  or,  rather,  fresh  sections  of  film,  are 
received,  they  are  thrown  upon  the  screen  in  the 
pictorial  equivalent  of  the  paragraphs  in  the  stop- 
press  column  of  the  newspapers,  earlier  items  of 
less  interest  being  condensed  or  expunged  in  the 
true  journalistic  manner  to  allow  the  latest 
photographic  intelligence  to  be  given  in  a  length 
consistent  with  its  importance. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  branch  of  the  business 
must  fall  largely  into  the  hands  of  the  unattached 
or  independent  worker,  who  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  picture  palace  as  the  outside 
correspondent  to  the  newspaper.  A  firm  engaged 
in  supplying  topical  films  cannot  hope  to  succeed 
without  amateur  assistance.  No  matter  how 
carefully  and  widely  it  distributes  its  salaried 
photographers,  numberless  events  of  interest  are 
constantly  happening — shipwrecks,  accidents, 
fires,  sensational  discoveries,  movements  of 
prominent  persons,  and  the  like,  at  places  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  retained  cinematographer.  For 
film  intelligence  of  these  incidents  the  firm  must 
rely  upon  the  independent  worker. 

B  2 


4       PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

Curiously  enough,  in  many  cases,  the  amateur 
not  only  executes  his  work  better  than  his 
salaried  rival,  but  often  outclasses  him  in  the 
very  important  respect  that  he  is  more  enterpris- 
ing. Acting  on  his  own  responsibility,  he  knows 
that  by  smartness  alone  can  he  make  way  against 
professionals.  Only  by  being  the  first  to  seize 
a  chance  can  he  find  a  market  for  his  wares. 
Thus  when  Bl6riot  crossed  the  English  Channel 
in  his  aeroplane  it  was  the  camera  of  an  amateur 
that  caught  the  record  of  his  flight  for  the  picture 
palaces,  although  a  corps  of  professionals  was  on 
the  spot  for  the  purpose.  True,  the  successful  film 
showed  many  defects.  But  defects  matter  little 
compared  with  the  importance  of  getting  the 
picture  first  or  exclusively.  Similar  cases  exist 
in  plenty.  The  amateur  has  an  excellent  chance 
against  the  professional.  His  remuneration,  too, 
is  on  a  generous  scale.  The  market  is  so  wide 
and  the  competition  is  so  keen,  especially  in 
London,  which  is  the  world's  centre  of  the 
cinematograph  industry,  that  the  possessor  of  a 
unique  film  can  dictate  his  own  terms  and  secure 
returns  often  twenty  times  as  great  as  the  prime 
cost  of  the  film  he  has  used. 

The  market  is  open  also  to  travellers,  explorers, 
and  sportsmen.  These,  with  a  cinematograph 
camera  and  a  few  thousand  feet  of  film,  can 
recompense  themselves  so  well  that  the  entire 


ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES    5 

cost  of  an  expedition  may  be  defrayed.  An 
Austrian  sportsman  who  roamed  and  hunted  in 
the  North  Polar  icefields  received  over  £6,000 
($30,000)  for  the  films  he  brought  back  with  him. 
Mr.  Cherry  Kearton,  who  took  pictures  of  wild 
life  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  sold  his 
negatives  for  £10,000  or  $50,000. 

Scientific  investigators  are  in  the  same  happy 
case.  When  their  researches  lead  them  to  any- 
thing that  has  an  element  of  popular  appeal, 
there  is  profit  awaiting  them  at  the  picture  palace. 
The  life  of  the  ant,  for  instance,  or  electrical 
experiments,  or  interesting  phases  of  chemistry, 
and  many  other  features  of  organic  and  inorganic 
science,  yield  good  returns  to  the  scientist  with 
a  camera.  Such  films  will  command  205.  ($5) 
or  more  per  foot  of  negative. 

There  is  another  branch  of  the  work  already 
well  established.  The  producer  of  picture  plays, 
if  his  plot  be  tolerably  good  and  the  scenes  well 
acted  and  well  photographed,  and  if  the  play 
itself  promises  some  popular  success,  can  com- 
mand a  good  price.  At  the  moment  there  are 
several  independent  producers  at  work  through- 
out the  world.  They  have  a  large  open  market  for 
the  disposal  of  their  wares  and  find  no  difficulty 
whatever  in  selling  all  they  can  produce.  Even 
the  largest  producers,  who  have  huge  theatres  and 
command  the  services  of  expert  scenario  writers 


6       PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

and   players,  do  not  hesitate  to  purchase  from 
outside  sources. 

A  cinematograph  camera,  and  a  little  luck,  will 
make  anyone's  holiday  profitable.  The  travelling 
amateur  penetrates  into  places  overlooked  by  the 
professional,  and  usually  takes  greater  pains 
with  his  work.  Afterwards  he  finds  his  market 
in  the  fact  that  the  demand  for  travel  pictures 
is  so  great  that  a  good  film  of  300  feet  will  fetch 
£40  ( $200)  and  upwards.  At  home  he  may  exploit 
his  ingenuity  in  making  trick  films,  a  most  popular 
feature  at  the  picture  palaces,  so  long  as  he  keeps 
novelty  to  the  forefront.  Trick  films,  unfor- 
tunately, take  so  long  to  prepare  and  demand 
such  care,  skill  and  patience  that  the  largest 
firms  of  producers  as  a  rule  are  not  eager  to 
attempt  them,  because  their  production  dis- 
organises the  more  regular  and  profitable  work 
of  the  studio.  A  good  trick  film  of  800  feet  may 
occupy  six  months  in  preparation.  But  the 
amateur  may  approach  what  the  large  firm  fears. 
To  him  time  is  no  object,  and  he  is  able  to  main- 
tain his  interest,  care,  and  ingenuity  to  the  end  of 
the  quest.  On  the  other  hand  the  professional 
worker  often  tires  of  his  trick  subject  before  the 
task  is  half  completed,  with  the  result  that  novelty 
and  care  are  not  sustained.  One  industrious 
Frenchman  devoted  nearly  a  year  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  film  in  which  resort  had  to  be  made  to 


ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES    7 

every  conceivable  form  of  trickery,  and  sold 
his  product  for  £3,000  or  $15,000.  He  also  refused 
an  offer  of  £5,000  ($25,000)  for  another  film  of 
pictures  calculated  to  please  children. 

To  sum  up,  the  amateur  or  independent  cine- 
matographer  has  a  vast  field  available  for  the 
profitable  exercise  of  his  skill.  Except  in  regard 
to  the  topical  work,  which  is  of  the  rush-and- 
hustle  order,  he  must  show  imagination  in  his 
choice  of  subject  and  craftsmanship  in  the  execu- 
tion of  his  work.  He  must,  that  is  to  say,  be 
trained  so  far  as  to  be  no  longer  an  amateur  in 
the  popular  meaning  of  the  word.  He  must  learn 
aptitude  in  the  school  of  experience.  The  reward 
is  well  worth  the  trouble. 

Hitherto  the  amateur  worker  has  been  held  back 
by  the  great  expense  of  the  necessary  apparatus. 
The  camera  cost  £50  ($250),  and  the  developing 
and  printing  operations  were  generally  supposed 
to  be  too  difficult  and  costly  for  private  under- 
taking. There  was  some  excuse  for  these  notions. 
The  trade  at  first  followed  narrow  lines,  no 
welcome  being  held  out  to  the  amateur  competitor. 
But  circumstances  have  been  too  strong  for  this 
trade,  as  for  others,  and  it  burst  its  bonds  in  due 
time.  The  co-operation  of  the  independent  worker 
became  essential  as  the  demands  of  the  market 
increased.  In  the  production  of  plays,  for  instance, 
England  at  first  led  the  way.  But  the  American 


8       PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

and  French  producers  came  quickly  to  the  fore. 
The  English  pioneers,  not  being  skilled  in  the 
mysteries  of  stage  craft,  wisely  retired  from  the 
producing  field  upon  the  entrance  of  the  expert 
from  the  legitimate  theatre,  who  realised  that  the 
moving-picture  field  offered  him  increased  oppor- 
tunities for  his  knowledge  and  activity  as  well  as 
bringing  him  more  profitable  financial  returns  for 
his  labours.  The  British  fathers  of  the  industry 
devoted  their  energies  to  the  manufacture  of 
cinematographic  apparatus,  as  they  foresaw  that 
sooner  or  later  the  amateur  and  independent 
worker  must  enter  the  industry.  The  activity  of 
amateurs  was  needed  by  the  English  trade  as  a 
whole,  and  the  manufacturer,  with  great  enter- 
prise, brought  down  the  cost  of  apparatus 
to  a  very  reasonable  level.  This  has  been 
effected  by  methods  not  less  advantageous  to  the 
purchaser  than  is  the  reduction  of  the  price — by 
standardisation  of  parts  and  simplification  of 
mechanism. 

To-day  a  reliable  camera  for  living  pictures, 
suitable  for  topical  and  other  light  work,  can  be 
bought  for  £$  or  $25.  A  more  expensive  camera, 
the  Williamson,  costs  £10  IDS.  ($52),  and  is  actually 
as  good  as  other  machines  priced  at  four  or  five 
times  that  sum.  On  the  other  hand,  so  much  as 
£150  ($750)  can  be  paid.  But  the  camera  sold  for 
this  large  sum  demands  a  purchaser  with  some- 


ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES   9 

thing  more  than  a  long  purse.  It  demands 
special  knowledge.  Designed  for  studio  work, 
it  has  peculiarities  that  are  difficult  to  master 
and  is  not  to  be  recommended  to  a  beginner. 

With  the  cost  of  the  camera  the  cost  of  other 
apparatus  has  fallen  in  proportion.  It  was 
realised  that  the  amateur's  dark  room  and  other 
facilities  are  likely  to  be  less  excellent  than  those 
of  the  professional  and  that  he  must  be  provided 
with  compensating  conveniences.  This  problem 
has  been  solved.  A  complete  developing  outfit 
can  now  be  packed  in  a  hand-bag,  and  a  camera 
and  printing  outfit  can  be  carried  in  a  knapsack 
no  larger  than  is  required  for  the  whole-plate 
camera  of  the  old  "  still-life "  photographer. 
Simple  and  efficient  appliances  for  the  dark  room 
can  be  purchased  very  cheaply.  There  is  a 
portable  outfit  for  use  in  field  work,  where  it  is 
imperative  that  films  should  be  developed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  exposure,  and  this  outfit  is 
now  used  by  the  majority  of  travellers  and  field- 
workers,  such  as  Cherry  Kearton,  Paul  Rainey, 
and  others.  Distinct  advantage,  it  may  be  observed, 
comes  from  prompt  developing.  There  may  be 
vexatious  delay,  occasionally,  but  the  photo- 
grapher is  at  least  able  to  tell  quickly  whether 
his  film  is  a  success  or  a  failure.  It  is  better  to 
gain  this  knowledge  on  the  spot,  even  com- 
pulsorily,  where  another  record  can  be  taken, 


io     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

than  to  gain  it  later  a  few  hundreds  of  miles  from 
the  chance  of  trying  again. 

The  capital  expenditure  of  the  cinematographer 
need  certainly  not  be  great.  A  complete  outfit, 
the  "Jury,"  may  now  be  obtained  for  £20  or  $100. 
It  comprises  a  combined  camera  and  printer, 
developing,  troughs,  film-winding  frames  for  de- 
veloping and  drying,  and  all  necessary  chemicals. 
Yet  it  is  no  toy,  as  might  be  thought,  but  a 
thoroughly  reliable  outfit  capable  of  doing  first- 
class  work.  Anyone  who  is  more  ambitious,  or 
willing  to  spend  more  money,  should  purchase 
the  Williamson  outfit.  This  costs  about  £40,  or 
§200. 

Now  for  other  difficulties  that  have  nothing  to  do 
with  money.  It  has  been  assumed  that  the  art  of 
animated  photography  is  a  mystery  demanding  a 
long  and  weary  apprenticeship.  But  the  impres- 
sion is  really  quite  wrong.  Anyone  who  has 
practised  still-life  and  snap-shot  photography 
may  become  proficient  in  the  new  art  within  a 
week  or  two.  Many  of  the  problems  encountered 
in  the  old  photography  are  actually  easier  to  solve 
in  the  new ;  some  are  eliminated  entirely  ;  others, 
that  are  intensified,  are  really  not  very  hard  to 
master. 

Animated  photography  is  nothing  more  than 
a  Kodak  worked  by  machinery.  Instead  of 
the  shutter  being  actuated  by  hand  to  make  an 


ATTRACTIONS  AND  OPPORTUNITIES    11 

exposure,  and  the  film  afterwards  moved  by 
turning  a  roller  so  as  to  bring  a  fresh  area  before 
the  lens,  the  two  movements,  in  the  cinemato- 
graph, are  combined.  The  rotation  of  the  handle 
alternately  opens  and  closes  the  lens,  and  moves 
the  film  forward  a  defined  distance  after  each 
exposure.  Therefore,  speaking  generally,  if  the 
beginner  knows  how  to  use  an  ordinary  camera 
and  is  familiar  with  subsequent  operations  of 
developing  and  printing,  he  should  be  able  to 
accustom  himself  quite  readily,  with  little  waste 
of  material,  to  the  different  conditions  of  motion 
photography. 

There  is  practically  but  one  process  that  he 
should  not  at  first  attempt.  This  is  the  perfora- 
tion of  the  film.  The  film  is  a  celluloid  ribbon 
and  is  punctured  near  either  edge,  at  intervals, 
so  as  to  enable  it  to  be  gripped  by  the  claws  of 
the  mechanism  and  moved  forward  intermittently 
a  definite  distance — three  quarters  of  an  inch — 
through  the  camera.  This  puncturing  or  per- 
foration of  the  film  is  the  most  delicate  of  the 
whole  cycle  of  operations.  It  can  only  be  done 
by  a  machine  of  unerring  precision  manipulated 
with  extreme  care.  The  machines,  though  many 
are  on  the  market,  are  somewhat  expensive, 
and  it  is  upon  them  that  the  steadiness  of  the 
picture  on  the  screen  depends.  The  inaccuracy 
in  the  perforation  may  be  slight,  a  minute  fraction 


12      PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

of  an  inch,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  each 
picture  on  the  film  is  magnified  more  than  fifteen 
thousand  times  upon  the  screen,  and  the  errors 
are  magnified  in  proportion.  But  these  con- 
siderations need  not  trouble  the  amateur.  He 
can  purchase  his  "  stock,"  as  the  unexposed 
film  is  called,  perforated  ready  for  use. 

In  spite  of  the  great  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
both  camera  and  outfit  the  expense  of  cinemato- 
graphy is  still  its  drawback.  The  film  is  the 
culprit.  It  costs  from  id.  to  ^d. — say,  from  4  to 
10  cents — a  foot.  Yet  in  this  case,  as  in  others, 
reduction  seems  to  be  within  sight.  The  increased 
demand  is  sure  to  cheapen  the  process  of  pro- 
duction. If  the  price  is  not  then  lowered  as 
much  as  could  be  hoped  the  cause  will  be  in  the 
cost  of  the  basic  materials.  These  also,  perhaps, 
will  become  less  dear  in  time.  Cinematography 
is  an  industry  in  revolution.  Its  possibilities  are 
only  beginning  to  be  seen ;  its  followers  are  only 
beginning  to  be  counted ;  but  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  the  ranks  of  the  amateur  and 
independent  workers  are  certain  to  increase 
considerably  and  rapidly.  The  attractions  and 
inducements  to  practise  the  craft  are  too  alluring 
to  be  ignored. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

FOR  complete  success  in  moving-picture  work 
it  is  essential  to  have  an  elementary  knowledge 
of  the  principles  upon  which  the  art  is  based. 
Although  pictures  are  said  to  be  shown  in  motion 
upon  the  screen,  no  action  is  reproduced  as  a 
matter  of  fact.  The  eye  imagines  that  it  sees  move- 
ment Each  picture  is  an  isolated  snap-shot  taken 
in  the  fraction  of  a  second.  In  projection  upon 
the  screen,  however,  the  images  follow  so  rapidly 
one  after  the  other  and  each  remains  in  sight  for 
so  brief  a  period  that  the  successive  views  dissolve 
into  one  another.  The  missing  parts  of  the  motion 
— the  parts  lost  while  the  lens  is  closed  between 
the  taking  of  each  two  pictures — are  not  detected 
by  the  eye.  The  latter  imagines  that  it  sees  the 
whole  of  the  process  of  displacement  in  the 
moving  objects.  In  fact  it  sees  only  one-half — 
the  half  that  occurred  in  those  fractions  of  seconds 
during  which  the  lens  was  open.  What  occurred 
while  the  lens  was  shut  is  not  recorded.  Animated 
photography,  therefore,  is  an  optical  illusion 
purely  and  simply. 


i4     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

The  fact  that  an  appearance  of  natural  move- 
ment is  seen  under  these  conditions  is  due  to  a 
physiological  phenomenon  which,  for  the  want  of 
a  better  explanation,  is  termed  "persistence  of 
vision."  This  peculiarity  of  the  eye  and  brain 
remains  a  scientific  puzzle,  and  although  in  one 
or  two  quarters  the  theory  of  visual  persistence 
is  ridiculed,  the  iconoclasts  have  not  yet  brought 
conclusive  testimony  to  upset  it.  The  whole 
subject  of  persistence  of  vision  in  its  relation  to 
moving-pictures  is  discussed  at  length  by  the 
present  writer  in  a  former  book  to  which  he  would 
refer  such  readers  as  may  wish  for  information  on 
this  subject.1 

The  eye  is  about  one  million  times  faster 
than  the  most  rapid  sensitized  emulsion  which 
chemists  have  yet  produced.  So  there  is 
nothing  wrong  about  the  popular  opinion  that 
the  organ  of  sight  is  the  quickest  of  the 
senses.  Yet  it  is  not  so  quick  that  it  cannot  be 
deceived.  If  the  pictures  of  a  cinematograph 
are  projected  upon  the  screen  at  the  rate  of  so 
many  per  second,  the  effect  upon  the  eye  is  that  of 
perfectly  natural  movement.  The  laws  that  govern 
this  illusion  have  been  discovered  in  a  very 
interesting  way.  A  positive  film  was  prepared, 
but  between  each  successive  image  a  wide  white 

1  See  "  Moving  Pictures  :  How  they  are  made  and  worked," 
Chapter  I. 


OPERATOR   AND   HIS   CAMERA   BURIED   IN   A    HOLE   TO   TAKE 
MOVING-PICTURES  OF  SMALL  ANIMALS. 


By  permission  of  the  Holograph  Co. 

MAKING  MOVING-PICTURES  OF  WILD  RABBITS. 
Mr.  Frank  Newman  with  his  camera  concealed  in  the  bushes. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CINEMATOGRAPHY    15 

line  was  inscribed.  This  film  was  then  passed 
through  the  projector,  and  the  pictures  were 
thrown  upon  the  screen  at  the  speed  generally 
accepted  as  being  necessary  to  convey  the  effect 
of  natural  movement ;  but  animation  could  not  be 
produced  at  all,  however  rapidly  the  pictures  were 
projected.  The  reason  was  simple.  Immediately 
after  a  picture  disappeared  from  the  screen  the 
white  flash  occurred,  and  notwithstanding  its 
instantaneous  character  it  was  sufficient  to  wipe 
out  the  image  of  the  picture,  which  without  the 
white  line  would  have  lingered  in  the  brain.  Even 
when  the  pictures  were  run  through  the  projector 
at  thirty  per  second,  no  impression  of  rhythmic 
movement  was  obtained  ;  they  appeared  in  the 
form  of  still-life  pictures  with  spasmodic  jumps 
from  one  to  the  other.  They  failed  to  blend  or 
dissolve  in  the  brain,  notwithstanding  that  the 
white  flash  in  some  cases  was  only  about  one 
ten  thousandth  part  of  a  second  in  duration. 

Another  film  of  the  same  subject  then  was 
passed  through  the  projector  under  conditions 
exactly  similar  except  that  the  line  dividing  the 
pictures  in  this  case  was  black  instead  of  white. 
When  this  picture  was  thrown  upon  the  screen, 
animation  became  apparent  directly  the  speed 
attained  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  because 
after  one  image  had  vanished  from  the  screen  it 
persisted  in  the  brain,  in  spite  of  the  black  flash, 


1 6     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

until  the  next  picture  appeared.  Thus,  the 
requisite  dissolving  effect  was  obtained.  The 
black  flash  did  indeed  produce  a  defect  like  that 
which  was  common  in  the  early  days  of  cinemato- 
graphy and  was  characterised  generally  as 
"flicker."  But  it  did  not  suffice  to  ruin  the 
illusion  of  movement.  A  white  flash  destroys 
apparent  motion,  owing  to  the  brain  being  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  white  :  a  black  flash  of  equal 
duration  exercises  no  ill  effects. 

In  the  latest  development  of  the  art,  one 
inventor  has  taken  advantage  of  this  peculiarity. 
He  has  perfected  a  practical  system  wherewith 
the  shutter  of  the  camera  may  be  abandoned 
because  each  picture  is  cut  off  from  its  neigh- 
bour by  a  very  thin  black  line.  An  improved 
mechanism  jerks  each  picture  off  and  brings  the 
next  one  on  the  screen  very  sharply,  so  that  an 
effect  is  produced  like  that  obtainable  with  the 
shutter  and  without  any  impression  of  flicker. 
It  may  be  pointed  out  that  with  this  invention 
there  are  none  of  the  aberrations  described  in  a 
later  chapter,  such  as  the  spokes  of  a  wheel 
appearing  to  move  in  the  reverse  direction  to 
which  which  the  rim  is  travelling. 

The  next  question  is  that  of  the  speed  at  which 
it  is  necessary  to  take  and  to  project  the  pictures 
in  order  to  get  an  apparently  true  impression  of 
natural  movement.  This  factor  to-day  is  governed 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CINEMATOGRAPHY    17 

almost  entirely  by  commercial  considerations. 
It  has  been  found,  as  a  result  of  elaborate 
investigation,  that  a  speed  of  twelve  to  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  is  the  minimum  wherewith 
in  monochrome  pictures  animation  is  obtainable. 
But  this  applies  only  to  general  work,  such  as 
records  of  ordinary  scenes,  topical  events  and 
stage  plays,  where  the  action  of  the  moving 
objects  is  comparatively  slow.  In  these  instances 
an  average  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second  in 
photographing  and  projecting  gives  completely 
satisfactory  effects. 

But  in  reality  the  speed  is  a  variable  quantity  : 
it  must  be  adapted  to  the  subject  and  the  character 
of  the  work  in  hand.  In  other  words,  strictly 
speaking,  the  speed  must  be  accommodated  to  the 
velocity  of  the  subject  so  far  as  photographing  is 
concerned,  and  also,  in  a  lesser  degree,  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  moving  object  from  the  lens.  For 
instance,  when  a  man,  walking  four  miles  an  hour, 
is  photographed  at  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  the 
movements  recorded  are  far  from  being  natural 
or  rhythmic.  On  the  screen  he  appears  to  walk 
with  a  disjointed  action.  To  obtain  a  lifelike 
result,  his  pace  should  be  slowed  down  75  per 
cent.,  or  the  photographing  speed  should  be 
accelerated  to  seventy  pictures  per  second  at  the 
least  This  fact  is  illustrated  very  conclusively 
in  pictures  of  soldiers  marching :  they  appear  to 

p.c.  c 


i8     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

advance  like  automatons.  Again,  in  photograph- 
ing animals,  a  complete  movement  is  often  lost 
between  successive  pictures.  A  cat  in  one  pic- 
ture will  be  seen  to  the  right ;  in  the  next  picture 
it  is  on  the  left,  having  sprung  from  one  side  to 
the  other  during  the  brief  interval  the  lens 
was  closed.  When  extremely  rapid  movements 
have  to  be  recorded,  the  photographing  speed  has 
to  be  accelerated  to  an  extreme  degree,  up  to  ten 
thousand  pictures  or  more  per  second  in  the  case  of 
a  bullet  leaving  the  muzzle  of  a  rifle,  and  up  to  two 
thousand  pictures  per  second  to  catch  the  move- 
ments of  a  dragon-fly's  wings.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  photographing  very  slow  movements 
like  the  growth  of  a  plant,  one  picture  per  hour 
may  be  adequate. 

In  projection  the  speed  can  be  adjusted.  The 
ten  thousand  pictures  per  second  may  be  de- 
celerated to  sixteen  per  second  to  allow  the 
movement  to  be  followed,  and  although  the  rifle 
bullet  may  appear  to  crawl  through  the  air,  the 
movement  is  perfectly  correct.  Similarly  the 
very  slow  motions  must  be  accelerated  to  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  to  obtain  evident  anima- 
tion. These  two  extreme  phases  of  cinemato- 
graphic investigation  are  described  at  length  in 
another  part  of  this  volume,  but  are  mentioned 
here  merely  to  show  that  the  photographing 
speed  is  a  somewhat  elastic  factor,  to  be  adapted 


PRINCIPLES  OF  CINEMATOGRAPHY    19 

to  circumstances   in   order  to  produce  passably 
natural  effects. 

For  everyday  work,  however,  a  speed  of  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  is  sufficient  and  represents 
the  generally  practised  velocity.  Possibly  in  the 
near  future  the  speed  will  be  accelerated  to  twenty, 
twenty-two,  or  twenty-four  pictures  per  second, 
as  the  present  speed  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
too  slow.  The  eyes  of  the  regular  picture  palace 
patrons  have  become  trained,  as  it  were,  with 
the  result  that  there  is  an  appreciable  strain  of 
the  eyes,  while  the  disjointed  character  of  the 
movements  on  the  screen  may  be  detected.  But 
when  the  taking  and  projecting  speed  is  accele- 
rated by  50  per  cent,  the  picture  stands  steadier 
upon  the  screen,  the  movements  are  more  natural, 
and  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  that  automaton 
effect  which  is  so  characteristic  of  most  pictures 
taken  under  prevailing  conditions.  These  con- 
siderations do  not  affect  photo-plays  produced  in 
the  studio  so  materially,  because  there  the  actions 
of  the  players  can  be  slowed  down  to  suit  the 
conditions. 

One  of  the  leading  manufacturers  is  earnestly 
considering  the  advisability  of  accelerating  the 
taking  and  projecting  speeds  up  to  about  twenty 
pictures  per  second,  and  private  investigations 
and  experiments  have  certainly  demonstrated  the 
value  of  such  an  improvement.  Unfortunately 

C  2 


20     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

two  difficulties  prevent  its  immediate  realisation. 
An  increase  of  only  four  pictures  per  second 
represents  an  increase  of  25  per  cent,  in  the  con- 
sumption of  the  film,  and  therefore  in  its  cost. 
The  other  difficulty  is  more  serious.  Existing 
apparatus,  both  cameras  and  projectors,  are  geared 
to  eight  pictures  per  turn  of  the  handle.  This 
involves  two  complete  revolutions  per  second. 
Consequently  the  gearing  of  the  mechanism  would 
have  to  be  altered,  and  this  is  a  more  trouble- 
some question  than  appears  at  first  sight.  Some 
time  may  elapse  before  a  forward  step  is  taken 
in  this  direction.  In  matters  of  this  character 
the  cinematograph  industry  is  notoriously  con- 
servative, although  the  moment  one  firm  courage- 
ously adopts  an  accelerated  speed,  the  higher 
quality  of  the  resulting  pictures  will  force  the 
others  to  follow  the  example. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  decision  to  adopt  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  was  taken  somewhat  hap- 
hazardly without  any  scientific  investigation. 
When  it  became  standardised,  film  was  expensive. 
Accordingly,  efforts  were  made  to  secure  the 
requisite  effect  with  the  minimum  expenditure 
of  film.  Machines  were  built  to  coincide  with 
these  requirements,  and  the  original  designs  have 
been  followed  slavishly  in  their  broad  outlines 
ever  since. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA    AND  ITS   MECHANISM 

THE  cinematograph  camera  differs  entirely 
from  the  instruments  used  in  other  branches  of 
photography.  While  the  advanced  worker  and  the 
prosperous  picture-play  producer  employ  costly 
and  elaborate  machines,  the  amateur,  or  the 
independent  worker,  in  the  particular  field  which 
he  has  selected  for  his  operations,  can  get  equally 
good  results  with  an  apparatus  only  a  fifteenth 
or  even  a  twentieth  part  as  expensive.  The  range 
of  operation  with  the  cheaper  instrument  may  be 
limited,  and  it  may  be  deficient  in  those  many 
little  refinements  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
professional  appliance,  and  may  lack  silver-plated 
finish  and  highly-polished  woodwork  or  morocco 
leather  covering.  But  the  camera  itself  is  more 
important  than  these. 

The  cameras,  both  expensive  and  low-priced, 
work  upon  the  same  fundamental  principles.  In 
the  latter  everything  is  reduced  to  the  simplest 
form  so  as  to  be  readily  and  easily  understood 
by  the  beginner.  They  have  the  additional 
recommendation  that  the  risk  of  breakdown  is 


22     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

eliminated,  because  the  few  essential  component 
parts  are  substantially  made,  well-proportioned, 
and  nicely-balanced.  Serviceability  and  reliability 
are  the  outstanding  features  of  the  low-priced 
camera,  and  it  is  applicable  to  almost  every  branch 
of  the  craft. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  taking  the  "  movies  " 
is  quite  as  simple  as  snap-shot  photography  with 
a  Kodak.  In  the  latter  case  you  press  the  button  ; 
in  the  former  you  turn  the  handle ;  the  camera 
does  the  rest.  The  rotation  of  the  handle,  a 
simple  operation,  performs  every  duty  through 
the  internal  mechanism.  It  swings  the  shutter 
across  the  lens,  moves  the  film  intermittently 
through  the  instrument,  and  coils  up  the  exposed 
film  in  its  dark  box. 

As  has  been  explained,  the  beginner  is  now  able 
to  make  his  selection  from  a  wide  variety  of  makes, 
ranging  in  price  from  £5  ($25)  upwards.  If  one 
desires  to  gain  experience  in  the  cinematographic 
art  with  the  minimum  capital  outlay,  the  Jury, 
"New  Era,"  or  "Alpha"  cameras  will  suit  the 
purpose  excellently.  Both  are  first-class,  well- 
made  machines,  having  perfect  registration  and 
alignment,  extremely  simple  and  easy  to  handle. 
The  first-named  model,  which  is  the  cheapest,  is 
contained  in  a  mahogany  case  measuring  9^  inches 
square  by  4|  inches  deep,  and  in  the  unloaded 
condition  weighs  5^  pounds.  The  "  Alpha,"  which 


THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA     23 

costs  a  little  more,  is  full  value  for  money,  and  is 
well  worth  the  slightly  increased  price.  This 
camera  is  fitted  with  a  light-proof  hinged  front 
panel  giving  access  to  the  adjustable  shutter, 
which  permits  the  opening  of  the  latter  to  be 
varied  within  wide  limits  and  thus  enables  ex- 
tremely rapid  movements  to  be  photographed 
while  running  the  machine  at  the  normal  speed. 
The  spool  boxes  carry  100  feet  of  film  of  standard 
gauge  in  each  instance,  and  for  general  all-round 
work,  such  as  the  recording  of  topical  events, 
either  model  will  be  found  perfectly  efficient.  It 
may  be  mentioned  that  both  models  are  supplied 
without  the  lens,  because  the  average  beginner 
in  motion-picture  work,  having  practised  still-life 
or  snap-shot  photography,  has  usually  developed 
a  marked  fancy  for  some  particular  make  of  lens 
— Dallmeyer,  Cooke,  Ross,  Zeiss-Tessar,  or 
Voigtlander.  Naturally,  being  familiar  with  the 
working  of  his  favourite  and  knowing  what  he 
can  do  with  it,  he  feels  more  at  home  when  he 
is  able  to  have  it  fitted  to  his  moving-picture 
machine.  Here,  again,  there  is  a  wide  selection 
to  meet  all  purses,  so  that  the  most  fastidious 
tastes  in  regard  to  the  lens  may  be  gratified.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  beginner  has  no  marked 
preference,  and  wishes  to  be  economical,  he  can 
get  a  lens  capable  of  doing  first-class  work  at  a 
remarkably  low  price.  His  complete  outlay 


24     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

upon  the  camera  and  the  lens  need  not  exceed 
£6  5s.,  or,  say,  $31. 

If  prices  are  not  to  be  so  strictly  considered, 
and  if  the  beginner  wishes  to  have  a  machine 
of  the  finest  type  at  a  comparatively  low  figure, 
he  cannot  do  better  than  fit  himself  out  with  a 
Williamson  camera,  the  price  of  which,  complete 
with  lens,  is  £10  ios.,  say  $52.  Except  for  an  expert, 
it  is  difficult  to  detect  the  difference  between  this 
machine  and  one  which  costs  five  times  as  much, 
for  both  are  designed  upon  the  same  lines,  are 
equally  well  made,  and  equally  capable  of  doing 
the  finest  work.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
Mr.  James  Williamson,  the  designer  of  the 
latter  instrument,  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
in  cinematography,  and,  in  his  machine,  the 
results  of  some  twenty-five  years  varied  and 
accumulated  experience  are  incorporated.  He 
has  been  able  to  realise  just  those  essentials 
which  are  required  for  a  high-class  apparatus 
free  from  complexity,  and  this  end  has  been 
achieved  to  excellent  effect.  The  camera,  finished 
in  a  brass-bound  mahogany  or  teak  case — the 
latter  is  preferable  for  working  in  tropical 
countries  —  measures  9^  inches  square  by  4! 
inches  deep,  is  fitted  with  a  Zeiss-Tessar  2-inch 
lens  with  focussing,  and  iris  diaphragm.  It 
weighs  j\  pounds  complete  in  loaded  condition. 
It  is  eminently  suited  for  all  round  duties,  from 


— c 


Q 

THE  WILLIAMSON  TOPICAL  CAMERA  AND  TRIPOD. 

A.  Camera.  B.  Handle.  C.  Lens.  D.  View  finder. 
E.  Tripod  head.  F.  Horizontal  panoramic  movement  handle. 
G.  Vertical  panoramic  movement  handle. 


THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA     25 

the  rush  and  tumble  of  topical  work  to  the 
uneventful,  quiet  but  exacting  requirements  of 
the  laboratory. 

These  machines  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
selection.  Other  manufacturers  have  produced 
very  good  instruments  at  competitive  prices,  but 
those  which  I  have  mentioned  represent  probably 
the  best  in  their  respective  classes.  For  the 
purpose  of  introduction  to  the  art  of  cinema- 
tography the  beginner  can  do  no  better  than 
obtain  one  of  them.  If,  after  a  little  experience, 
he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  he  has  ventured 
into  the  wrong  province,  then  his  monetary 
expenditure  is  not  serious. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  aspirant  has  no  lack  of 
inducement  to  embark  upon  the  moving-picture 
industry.  Provided  he  has  acquired  a  certain 
knowledge  of  the  elements  of  photography,  and 
is  possessed  of  average  intelligence,  there  is  no 
reason  why  he  should  not  be  able  to  produce 
pictures  with  his  inexpensive  machine  that  are 
in  all  ways  comparable  with  the  product  of  the 
professional  worker  and  the  costly  instrument. 
Naturally,  as  the  intricacies  of  the  craft  are 
mastered,  the  tyro  will  wish  for  a  more  elaborate 
apparatus.  He  can  gratify  his  ambitions  in 
accordance  with  his  progress,  or  with  the 
improvement  in  his  financial  position. 

The  mechanism  of  the  modern  cinematograph 


26     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

camera  is  very  simple  in  its  character  and  very 
easy  to  understand.  The  necessary  parts  are 
very  few  in  number.  In  all  cameras  the  chief 
object  is  to  effect  the  forward  intermittent  move- 
ment of  the  film  at  regular  intervals  and  for  a 
defined  distance.  For  this  purpose  the  early 
types  of  camera  were  fitted  with  what  is  known 
as  the  Geneva  stop  movement.  Opinion  is 
divided  upon  its  merits,  some  authorities  con- 
demning it  unequivocably,  while  others  uphold 
it  strenuously,  contending  that  it  gives  a  steadier 
and  freer  motion.  There  is  much  to  be  said  in 
favour  of  the  latter  view.  Mechanically  the 
Geneva  stop  movement  is  perfect.  So  far  as 
cinematography  is  concerned  its  advantages  were 
proved  most  emphatically  by  Mr.  Robert  Paul, 
the  first  man  to  bring  motion  pictures  into  com- 
mercial application  in  Great  Britain.  He  adopted 
this  movement  in  his  camera,  and  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  his  pictures  were  in  every  way  equal 
to  those  produced  to-day,  while  his  camera  has 
never  been  excelled.  Curiously  enough,  although 
this  movement  has  been  superseded,  there  is  a 
tendency  among  expert  workers  to  revive  it, 
and  many  cameras  specially  built  have  been  fitted 
with  it. 

The  movement  more  commonly  used  is  that 
known  as  the  "claw."  It  is  simple,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  bringing  the  film  into  place  for  an 


THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA     27 

exposure  with  a  sharp,  quick  jerk.  But  it  is  a  move- 
ment which  requires  to  be  designed  very  finely 
in  order  to  perform  its  work  smoothly  and  evenly, 
and  without  inflicting  any  injury  upon  the  film. 

The  claw  consists  of  a  small  lever  in  duplicate, 
which  is  so  mounted  as  to  have  an  eccentric 
movement  and  is  driven  direct  by  the  main  gear 
wheel  rotated  by  the  handle.  The  free  upper 
end  of  each  arm  of  the  lever  has  a  projecting 
pointed  tooth  of  sufficient  size  to  engage  with  the 
perforations  on  either  side  of  the  film.  With 
the  revolution  of  the  wheel  upon  which  it  is 
mounted  eccentrically  the  claw  engages  with  the 
perforations,  and,  thus  gripping  the  film  after 
the  manner  of  a  ratchet  and  pawl,  jerks  it 
downwards  a  definite  distance.  When  this 
downward  movement  is  completed  the  claw 
disengages  from  the  perforations  and  falls  back 
clear  of  the  film.  Then  the  wheel,  continuing 
its  rotary  movement,  proceeds  to  lift  the  claw. 
When  it  has  raised  it  to  its  highest  point 
it  brings  it  forward  smartly  to  re-engage 
with  the  perforations,  and  causes  a  fresh  down- 
ward movement  of  the  film.  The  action  is 
intermittent  and  occurs  at  regular  intervals,  while 
the  movement  of  the  film  is  always  the  same. 
Quick  engagement  and  disengagement  of  the 
perforations  is  imperative  for  preventing  the 
vibration  and  tearing  of  the  film. 


28     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

The  mechanism  of  the  camera  may  be  under- 
stood from  the  diagram  (Fig.  i),  which  refers  to 
the  Williamson  instrument.  The  sprocket  A  is 
driven  directly  by  the  operating  handle,  which 
engages  with  the  sprocket  spindle.  This 


FIG.  i. — Mechanism  of  camera  showing  threading  of  film. 

sprocket  A  is  fitted  with  two  rows  of  teeth, 
mounted  upon  its  periphery,  and  so  spaced  apart, 
both  circumferentially  and  transversely,  as  to 
coincide  with  the  distances  between  the  perfora- 
tions of  the  film.  A  pair  of  twin  rollers,  D  and 
E,  bear  against  this  sprocket  under  the  tension 


THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA     29 

of  a  spring,  their  object  being  to  keep  the  film 
pressed  firmly  against  the  sprocket.  The  teeth 
engage  with  the  film  perforations,  so  that  by  the 
rotation  of  the  handle  and  sprocket  the  film  is 
fed  forwards  regularly,  smoothly  and  evenly,  as 
it  is  drawn  from  the  loaded  spool  box  B. 

The  film  is  brought  into  position  before  the 
lens  by  passing  through  what  is  known  as  the 
"gate."  This  device  H  consists  of  two  parts 
of  which  the  first  is  fixed  irremovably  while  the 
second  is  hinged  to  the  first  at  one  side  and 
kept  flat  against  it  by  means  of  a  spring.  Both 
of  the  parts  are  provided  with  an  aperture  or 
window,  the  exact  size  of  a  cinematograph 
picture — i  inch  wide  by  f-inch  deep — through 
which  the  light  passes,  after  admission  through 
the  lens,  to  strike  upon  the  sensitized  surface 
of  the  film.  There  is  just  sufficient  space 
between  the  two  parts  of  the  gate  to  permit  the 
film  to  move  easily,  and  its  object  is  to  hold  the 
film  perfectly  flat  and  steady  during  the  period 
of  exposure.  Each  picture  is  thus  kept  in  absolute 
focus. 

The  feed  through  the  gate  is  accomplished  by 
the  claw  N,  which  is  mounted  upon  the  eccentric 
O  as  already  described.  At  the  instant  of 
exposure  the  claw  is  free  of  the  film,  or  in  the 
"out  position,"  as  it  is  termed,  so  that  the 
sensitized  ribbon  is  absolutely  still.  When  an 


30     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

exposure  has  been  made,  the  claw,  having  risen 
to  the  highest  point  of  its  travel,  re-engages  with 
the  film  and  jerks  it  down  f  inch,  so  as  to  bring 
a  fresh  unexposed  surface  before  the  lens.  As 
the  film  emerges  from  the  gate  it  is  picked  up 
once  more  by  the  sprocket  A,  the  engagement 
of  the  perforations  in  the  film  with  the  sprocket 
teeth  being  assured  by  the  two  rollers  J  and  K. 
The  film  then  passes  under  the  guide  roller  L, 
and  is  wound  up  on  the  bobbin  M  in  the  exposed 
film  box  C,  the  bobbin  being  worked  through  the 
handle  that  drives  the  mechanism. 

The  rotation  of  the  handle  also  ensures,  through 
gearing,  the  revolution  of  the  shutter  P,  whereby 
the  lens  is  eclipsed  intermittently.  The  shutter 
is  a  ring  fitted  with  an  opaque  sector  which 
comes  before  the  lens  and  shuts  out  the  light 
during  the  movement  of  the  film  through  the 
gate  H  by  the  claw  N.  In  the  Williamson 
camera  this  shutter  is  recessed  into  the  case. 

Although  the  lens  may  be  of  the  fixed  focus 
class — the  focussing  distance  varying  with  the 
stop  used — focussing  can  be  carried  out  inde- 
pendently if  very  critical  work  is  required.  In 
the  case  of  the  Williamson  camera  and  others  of 
this  type,  focussing  is  accomplished  by  opening 
the  shutter  and  the  side  of  the  camera  and  looking 
through  the  gate.  In  some  cameras  a  focussing 
tube  is  provided.  This  passes  from  the  gate  to 


THE  MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA     31 

the  rear  of  the  instrument,  through  a  space  pro- 
vided between  the  superimposed  film  dark-boxes. 
It  is  telescopic  at  the  forward  end.  Thus,  when 
focussing  is  being  carried  out,  it  can  be  extended 
so  as  to  come  flush  with  the  gate,  and  pushed 
back  out  of  the  way  when  all  is  ready  for  working, 
so  that  the  free  movement  of  the  film  is  not 
obstructed  in  any  way.  The  rear  end  of  the 
tube,  which  extends  through  the  rear  face  of 
the  camera  box,  is  fitted  with  a  cap  to  save  the 
film  from  being  fogged  by  light  entering  from 
behind. 

One  conspicuous  advantage  of  the  Williamson 
machine  is  that  the  whole  of  the  mechanism  is 
mounted  upon  a  skeleton  casting  fixed  to  the 
interior  of  the  mahogany  case  by  means  of  four 
screws.  By  withdrawing  these  the  whole  of  the 
internal  mechanism  may  be  removed  intact,  and 
much  trouble  is  saved  when  inspection  or  repairs 
are  necessary. 

In  some  cameras  the  intermittent  movement  of 
the  film  is  effected  by  a  single  claw  which  engages 
with  the  perforations  upon  one  side  of  the  film 
only.  But  this  movement  is  not  perfect.  All  the 
pulling  strain  is  thrown  upon  one  side  of  the 
film.  This  gives  it  a  tendency  to  move  unevenly 
into  the  gate  and  also  increases  the  risk  of 
tearing. 

The  driving  gear  of  the  camera  is  so  adjusted 


32     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

that  one  complete  revolution  of  the  handle  com- 
pletes eight  exposures.  Consequently  two  revolu- 
tions have  to  be  made  per  second  to  maintain  the 
necessary  speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second. 
In  the  Williamson  camera  this  is  emphasised  as 
a  fixed  speed  in  ordinary  working,  and  any  com- 
pensations demanded  by  the  varying  intensity 
of  the  light  are  made  by  altering  the  aperture 
of  the  lens.  This  is  a  logical  method,  for  if  the 
operator  is  required  to  make  such  compensations 
by  varying  the  speed  of  his  handle  he  is  apt  to 
obtain  an  indifferent  result.  It  requires  a  very 
skilled  operator  indeed  to  vary  the  speed  of  the 
handle  with  judgment  between  the  narrow  limits 
possible.  In  some  cameras  this  compensation 
for  light  is  effected  by  varying  the  area  of  the 
opaque  section  of  the  shutter,  but  this  is  not  so 
simple  or  effective  a  method  as  the  variation  of 
the  stop.  The  latter  can  be  accomplished  while 
the  camera  is  being  driven,  but  in  the  former  it 
is  necessary  that  the  work  should  be  stopped 
while  the  front  panel  camera  is  opened  and  the 
shutter  adjusted. 

As  for  the  tripod,  one  cannot  be  too  careful  in 
choosing  it.  This  apparently  insignificant  detail 
has  a  far-reaching  effect  upon  the  picture  results. 
Any  ordinary  tripod  used  in  photographic  work 
may  suffice,  but  its  absolute  rigidity  is  essential. 
A  tight  head,  too,  is  most  necessary,  without 


THE   MOVING-PICTURE  CAMERA    33 

which  the  operator  will  get  a  side-to-side  sway 
upon  the  picture.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  turning  the  handle  there  is  a  tendency, 
especially  at  first,  to  exert  an  unequal  pressure 
upon  the  handle  side  of  the  camera,  and,  unless 
the  support  and  its  head  are  kept  absolutely 
rigid,  the  pictures  will  betray  evidences  of  the 
defect.  The  telescopic  ladder  tripod  is  very 
handy  for  topical  work.  This,  when  it  is  extended 
and  when  the  camera  is  fixed,  brings  the  lens 
some  7  feet  above  the  ground.  A  cross-rail 
placed  from  12  to  25  inches  above  the  ground, 
and  attached  to  the  rear  legs,  offers  a  plat- 
form upon  which  the  operator  can  stand  to 
work  his  instrument.  In  this  way  both  camera 
and  operator  are  brought  above  the  heads  of 
the  crowd,  and  an  uninterrupted  view  can  be 
obtained. 

For  moving-picture  work  a  special  type  of  tripod 
head  has  been  evolved,  which  allows  the  camera 
to  be  moved  bodily  through  both  the  horizontal 
and  the  vertical  planes  while  exposures  are  being 
made.  Thus  it  can  follow  a  subject  travelling  in 
either  of  these  directions.  The  movements  are 
upon  the  rack  and  pinion  principle,  a  small  handle 
being  fitted  to  each  motion  so  that  either  can  be 
operated  independently  of  the  other.  By  means 
of  this  panoramic  attachment  the  main  object  in 
the  picture,  such  as  a  carriage  or  an  aeroplane, 

p.c.  D 


34     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

may  be  followed  in  either  direction.  But  if  both 
movements  are  to  be  completed  simultaneously, 
the  operator  will  require  help.  One  person  must 
sight  the  object  and  keep  it  in  the  picture  by 
the  manipulation  of  the  two  handles  governing 
the  respective  movements  of  the  tripod  head, 
while  the  other  confines  his  energies  to  turning 
the  camera  handle. 

Although  the  moving-picture  camera  is  built 
substantially  and  strongly,  its  mechanism  is  com- 
paratively delicate.  While  it  will  withstand  the 
hardest  descriptions  of  legitimate  work,  it  suc- 
cumbs readily  to  brutal  treatment.  Although 
operated  by  means  of  a  handle,  it  is  neither  a 
coffee  mill  nor  a  barrel  organ,  but  a  sensitive 
scientific  instrument,  and  it  must  be  treated  as 
such  if  the  finest  results  are  to  be  obtained. 
Rough  usage  will  throw  out  the  registration  and 
alignment.  If  handled  carefully  a  camera  should 
perform  its  task  for  years  without  needing  repair. 
The  effects  of  wear  and  tear  can  be  mitigated 
very  appreciably  by  keeping  the  moving  parts 
well  lubricated  with  good  oil,  such  as  is  used  for 
clocks,  which  neither  gums  nor  clogs  the  bearings, 
nor  injures  the  mechanism  in  any  way. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT 

HAVING  examined  the  mechanism  of  the  moving- 
picture  camera,  and  the  broad  principles  upon 
which  it  works,  we  must  now  study  the  way  to 
use  it. 

The  first  step  is  to  load  the  film  box,  an 
operation  which  must  be  carried  out  in  the  dark 
room.  The  film  is  sold  as  a  rule  in  standardised 
lengths,  such  as  100,  200,  350  feet,  etc.  With 
the  ordinary  type  of  camera  the  100  or  200  feet 
lengths  are  used.  For  topical  work  either  are 
quite  adequate  as  a  rule. 

As  has  been  said,  the  film  is  supplied  perforated 
and  ready  for  use.  Many  firms  that  sell  the 
"stock,"  as  the  unexposed  film  is  called,  attach 
a  blank  or  unsensitized  "lead"  to  one  end  of 
the  roll,  for  the  purpose  of  "  threading-up "  the 
camera.  If  this  is  not  supplied,  and  if  the  operator 
wishes  to  avoid  the  waste  of  2  or  3  feet  of 
sensitized  ribbon,  the  deficiency  can  easily  be 
remedied.  For  the  blank  "  lead "  all  that  is 
required  is  about  3  feet  of  useless  or  spoiled 
film  which,  however,  should  not  be  torn  or 

D  2 


36     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

cracked.  The  emulsion  at  one  end  of  this  should 
be  scraped  off  for  a  distance  of  about  |  inch.  A 
pocket  knife  will  do  this  very  efficiently.  The 
blank  should  then  be  laid  flat  upon  the  table, 
emulsion  side  uppermost,  preferably  upon  a 
sheet  of  glass  which  secures  a  smooth,  clean, 
level  surface,  and  a  little  film  cement  applied 
to  the  scraped  end  of  the  blank.  Film  cement 
can  be  obtained  readily  and  cheaply  in  small 
bottles  complete  with  cap  and  brush.  A  bottle 
should  always  be  kept  to  hand  as  it  is  often 
required,  especially  in  joining  up  successive 
lengths  of  film ;  but  if  it  should  so  happen  that 
none  is  available  at  the  moment,  glacial  acetic 
acid  may  be  used  with  equal  success,  although 
it  demands  more  careful  handling.  In  an  emer- 
gency alcohol  constitutes  a  first-class  cement,  but 
it  requires  extreme  care  and  skill  because  it  is  a 
solvent  of  the  celluloid  base. 

After  the  cement  has  been  applied  to  the 
cleaned  end  of  the  blank  lead,  the  end  of  the 
unexposed  coil  of  film  is  laid  upon  it,  emulsion 
side  uppermost,  the  overlap  being  about  f  inch. 
Care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  joint  is 
made  perfectly  square  and  that  the  perforation 
holes  of  each  piece  of  film  come  dead  true, 
otherwise  there  will  be  trouble  in  passing  the 
joint  through  the  camera  mechanism.  When  it 
has  been  superimposed  satisfactorily,  pressure 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT     37 

must  be  applied  to  secure  perfect  adhesion.  In 
order  to  ensure  perfect  jointing  a  film  jointer 
should  be  used :  in  fact  it  is  an  indispensable 
and  inexpensive  tool. 

When  attaching  the  blank  lead  every  precaution 
must  be  taken  to  protect  the  spool  of  unexposed 
film  from  light ;  only  a  very  faint  ruby  glow  should 
be  used,  for  the  cinematograph  film  is  extremely 
sensitive.  The  cement  dries  rapidly,  and  the 
joint  being  found  to  be  perfect  the  dark  box 
should  then  be  loaded.  The  coil  of  ribbon  is 
slipped  over  the  central  bobbin.  A  hole  large 
enough  for  this  purpose  is  alwa}'s  left  in  the  coil. 
The  end  of  the  lead  is  then  passed  through  the 
velvet-faced  slot  near  the  bottom  of  the  box.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  loose  end  slipping  back  into 
the  box,  in  which  event  there  must  be  another 
journey  to  the  dark  room,  it  should  be  bent  back 
and  re-entered  into  the  slot  so  as  to  form  an 
external  loop.  The  dark  box  is  then  closed,  and 
securely  locked,  and  is  ready  for  insertion  in  the 
camera.  It  is  advisable  to  carry  at  least  two  loaded 
boxes,  especially  if  each  is  only  of  100  or  200  feet 
capacity.  The  camera  is  provided  with  two  dark 
boxes,  one  placed  above  the  other.  The  upper 
box  carries  the  unexposed  film,  while  the  lower 
receives  the  ribbon  after  exposure. 

The  camera  may  then  be  "  threaded-up,"  or,  if 
focussing  is  desired,  this  can  be  completed  first. 


38     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

With  the  Williamson  camera  focussing  is  un- 
necessary within  certain  distances  owing  to  the 
fixed  foci  of  the  stops.  These  will  be  explained 
later.  Many  other  manufacturers  of  cameras 
follow  the  same  principle,  and  it  is  most  con- 
venient for  every-day  work.  Yet  it  may  happen 
that  the  operator  desires  to  focus  critically.  In 
this  event  he  opens  the  side  of  the  camera,  lifts 
the  pressure  plate  of  the  gate,  and  inserts  into 
the  gate  window  a  small  length,  about  2  inches, 
of  matt  film,  with  the  matt  side  towards  the  lens. 
The  matt  film  serves  exactly  the  same  purpose 
as  the  ground-glass  in  the  ordinary  plate  camera. 
The  handle  is  revolved  until  the  lens  is  opened, 
and  the  image  thrown  upon  the  matt  film  becomes 
apparent.  This  can  then  be  focussed  by  moving 
the  milled  focussing  screw  on  the  lens  until  the 
picture  stands  out  as  sharply  as  is  desired.  At 
first  the  operation  may  appear  to  be  somewhat 
awkward,  because  the  operator  has  to  look  upon 
the  matt  film  at  an  angle.  It  is  easier  in  the  case 
of  a  camera  fitted  with  a  focussing  tube,  for  the 
operator  has  then  merely  to  open  the  side  of  the 
machine  to  insert  the  matt  film  and  push  the 
telescopic  tube  out  to  its  fullest  extent  to  bear 
against  the  gate.  By  removing  the  cap  from  the 
tube  upon  the  rear  face  of  the  camera,  and 
looking  through  it  as  if  through  a  telescope,  he 
is  able  to  look  squarely  upon  his  screen. 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT    39 

When  focussing  is  complete  the  matt  film  is 
withdrawn  and  placed  in  a  safe  position.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  clinch  it  to  the  bottom  inner  surface 
of  the  camera  with  drawing  pins,  for  it  can  then 
be  found  when  it  is  wanted.  Should  the  piece 
be  lost  the  defect  can  be  repaired  as  follows. 
Take  a  small  bit  of  waste  film ;  scrape  off  the 
gelatine  emulsion  ;  and  rough  the  celluloid  surface 
with  a  piece  of  sandpaper ;  or  even  with  a  rough 
stone  surface.  It  is  well  to  carry  a  few  inches  of 
spoiled  film  in  the  pocket  for  such  an  emergency. 

The  film  may  now  be  threaded  up.  The  loop 
of  blank  projecting  from  the  dark  box  is  picked 
up  and  the  coil  within  is  steadily  unwound  as  the 
threading  proceeds.  The  blank  is  first  passed 
under  the  pressure  roller  (marked  D  in 
Fig.  i),  and  then  under  the  spring  roller  E, 
which  can  be  lifted  for  this  purpose.  It  must  be 
seen  that  the  teeth  of  the  sprocket  engage  with 
the  perforations  in  the  film.  A  loop  G  is  then 
made  and  the  film  is  threaded  through  the 
gate  H.  Before  this  can  be  done  the  claw  N 
must  be  thrown  in  the  "  out "  position  to  obtain 
access  to  the  gate,  which  is  done  by  turning 
round  the  eccentric.  The  spring  part  of  the  gate 
is  then  opened  on  its  hinge,  and  the  film  is  slipped 
in  from  the  side.  Care  must  be  observed  that 
an  ample  loop  is  left  above  the  gate.  When  the 
gate  is  closed  once  more  another  loop  I  similar 


40     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY  ' 

to  that  above  the  gate,  is  formed.  The  film  now 
is  passed  round  the  under  side  of  the  sprocket  A, 
the  spring  roller  J  being  pressed  back  to  admit 
of  easy  entrance,  and  the  end  of  the  blank  is 
passed  under  the  second  or  pressure  roller  K. 
Here  again  one  must  be  careful  to  see  that  the 
insertion  is  square  and  that  the  sprocket  teeth 
mesh  with  the  film  perforations.  The  film  is 
then  carried  under  guide  roller  L  and  through 
the  velvet-faced  slit  into  the  empty  film  box  C. 
This  must  be  opened  to  permit  the  free  end  of 
the  lead  to  be  secured  to  the  centre  bobbin  M,  on 
which  the  film  is  wound  in  after  exposure.  The 
handle  should  be  given  a  few  turns  to  see  that 
threading  has  been  carried  out  properly,  and  also 
that  it  is  properly  attached  to  the  bobbin  M.  If  a 
sufficient  length  of  blank  is  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  unexposed  film,  and  a  piece  of  gummed  paper 
is  fixed  on  the  lead  about  6  inches  in  advance  of 
the  joint,  it  is  possible  to  continue  winding  in  on 
the  lower  bobbin  until  this  mark  appears  at  the 
mouth  of  the  loaded  dark  box. 

If  the  threading  has  been  accomplished  properly 
the  interior  of  the  camera  should  be  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  facing  p.  42.  Here  both  film  boxes 
are  shown  open,  though  of  course  the  upper  one  is 
kept  closed  during  the  threading  process.  The 
most  important  part  of  this  operation  is  the 
formation  of  ample  loops  both  above  and  below 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT    41 

the  gate.  Once  formed  they  remain  constant, 
because  of  the  action  of  the  teeth  on  the  sprocket ; 
for  the  movement  of  the  ribbon  over  the  sprocket 
is  equal  to  that  produced  by  the  claws  through 
the  gate.  At  first  sight  the  necessity  of  these 
loops  may  not  be  apparent,  but  when  it  is 
remembered  that  the  film  is  moved  through  the 
gate  intermittently,  sixteen  times  per  second, 
with  a  vicious  jerk,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  there 
were  no  loop,  and  the  film  were  drawn  directly 
from  the  dark  box,  a  great  strain  would  be 
imposed  upon  it,  and  probably  it  would  break. 
But  by  providing  the  loop  an  elastic  feed  is 
secured,  and  the  film  is  jerked  into  position 
before  the  lens  with  the  minimum  of  vibration 
and  without  any  risk  of  tearing  or  displace- 
ment. 

Threading  completed  the  lower  dark  box  is 
closed  and  secured,  together  with  the  side  of  the 
camera,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  interior  is  light- 
proof.  The  camera  should  not  be  re-opened  after 
photographing  has  commenced  until  the  whole 
of  the  film  in  the  loaded  box  is  exhausted,  or,  if 
the  supply  is  not  used,  until  the  dark-room  is 
regained,  unless  the  waste  of  a  foot  or  two  of 
film  is  a  secondary  consideration.  Should  it 
become  necessary  to  open  the  camera  in  the  field, 
the  handle  should  be  given  two  or  three  turns  to 
make  sure  that  the  last  picture  taken  is  wound 


42     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

into  the  exposed  film  box  and  is  thus  secure  from 
the  light.  Opening  the  side  of  the  camera 
obviously  ruins  the  whole  of  the  unexposed  film 
threaded  through  the  mechanism,  so  that  when 
picture  taking  is  resumed  the  handle  must  be 
given  a  few  more  turns  to  make  sure  that  the 
whole  of  the  light-ruined  film  has  passed  through 
the  gate.  Seeing  that  one  turn  of  the  handle  re- 
presents eight  exposures,  equivalent  to  6  inches 
of  film,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  estimate  how 
many  turns  of  the  handle  are  necessary  to  clear 
the  gate  of  spoiled  film. 

Most  cameras  are  provided  with  a  film  indicator 
enabling  the  operator  to  tell  at  a  glance  how 
many  feet  of  film  have  been  exposed.  In  this 
case,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  indicator 
is  returned  to  zero  when  the  mechanism  is 
threaded-up. 

Another  convenience  is  the  "  punch  "  whereby 
it  is  possible  to  mark  the  film  after  an  incident 
has  been  photographed,  so  that  the  worker 
can  afterwards  tell  in  the  dark  room  by  a  mere 
touch  where  the  exposure  ended  in  each  case, 
The  film  should  be  marked  after  every  episode 
is  finished  because  it  is  then  possible,  if  desired, 
to  develop  the  film  in  lengths.  Indeed  it  is  advis- 
able to  follow  this  practice,  and  especially  when 
the  exposures  have  been  made  under  varying 
conditions  of  light.  By  developing  in  sections 


THE  WILLIAMSON  CAMERA  THREADED  READY  FOR  USE. 

The  film  is  taken  from  the  upper  unexposed  film-box, 
passed  over  the  sprocket,  through  the  gate,  under  the 
sprocket  and  wound  into  the  lower  exposed  film-box. 


THE  LENS  OF  THK  WILLIAMSON  CAMERA. 
(For  explanation  see  p.  43.) 


THE  ADJUSTABLE  SHUTTER  OF  THE  JURY  CAMERA. 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT  43 

one  gets  lengths  of  uniform  density — a  great 
assistance  in  printing. 

In  cinematography,  as  in  ordinary  photography, 
the  judgment  of  the  brilliance  of  the  light  and  of 
the  right  stop  to  use  on  each  occasion,  is  the  one 
important  factor  for  which  mechanical  provision 
is  impossible.  This  is  because  of  the  extreme 
variation  of  the  light  conditions.  But,  while  no 
hard  and  fast  rules  concerning  exposure  can  be 
laid  down,  it  is  possible  to  give  the  beginner  a 
little  guidance  to  keep  him  on  the  safe  side. 
Practice  alone  can  make  perfect,  and  experience 
is  the  more  necessary  because  the  cinematograph 
is  an  all-the-year-round  machine.  In  topical 
work  the  operator  is  compelled  to  make  the  most 
of  the  existing  weather  conditions,  no  matter 
how  deplorable  they  may  be. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  well  to  have 
what  might  be  termed  a  very  flexible  lens.  The 
lens,  that  is  to  say,  should  be  fitted  with  the 
means  of  varying  the  size  of  the  aperture,  and 
varying  it  within  wide  limits,  according  to  the 
light  conditions.  The  simplest  way  of  achieving 
this  is  by  means  of  what  is  called  an  iris 
diaphragm. 

To  illustrate  the  functions  of  the  iris  diaphragm 
we  will  take  the  Williamson  instrument. 
This  is  fitted  with  a  Zeiss-Tessar  lens  of  2-inch 
focus.  By  the  aid  of  the  iris  diaphragm  the 


44     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

diameter  of  the  aperture  may  be  varied  from 
approximately  f  to  %  of  an  inch.  Now  it  is 
obvious  that  more  light  can  be  passed  through 
the  lens  with  the  larger,  than  with  the  smaller, 
aperture.  While  the  larger  aperture  would  do 
excellently  for  filming  a  football  match  on  a  dull 
day  in  mid-winter,  it  would  be  useless  for  a 
seascape  on  a  cloudless  day  in  July.  For  the 
latter  the  smallest  aperture  would  suffice.  But 
the  requirements  between  these  two  extremes 
must  be  met :  in  other  words  the  aperture  must 
be  adapted  to  intermediate  demands.  By  turning 
the  milled  ring  in  which  the  iris  diaphragm  is 
mounted  the  size  of  the  aperture  can  be  varied 
even  to  a  minute  degree  and  thus  adjusted 
to  any  sort  of  light  conditions.  For  the  guidance 
of  the  operator  the  total  rotary  travel  of  the 
ring  is  graduated  to  six  different  definite  points 
or  as  many  different  sized  apertures.  These  are 
as  follows  : — 

//3'5  gives  an  aperture  f-inch  in  diameter  (nearly) 
4          „  »        |-inch  „ 

5 '6      „  „        |-inch  „  „ 

8         „  „        J-inch  „ 

11  M        i-inch 

16        „  „        £-inch  „ 

Although  the  differences  between  these  successive 
apertures  are  very  slight,  they  exercise  a  very 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT    45 

appreciable  effect  upon  the  volume  of  light 
passing  through  the  lens,  and  accordingly  the 
period  of  the  exposure.  Thus  although  stopf/^6 
only  decreases  the  size  of  the  aperture  by  £  of 
an  inch  over  //4,  yet  the  effect  of  this  reduction 
is  to  necessitate  twice  as  long  an  exposure  as  is 
suited  for  the  latter  stop.  Similarly //8  demands 
twice  the  exposure  of  that  required  for//5  -6,  and 
so  on,  the  exposure  being  doubled  with  every 
diminution  of  the  stop  up  to  the  limits  of  the 
diaphragm.  Yet  in  practice  this  increase  of 
exposure  between  two  stops  is  impossible,  because 
the  handle  must  be  turned  at  a  definite  speed. 
It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  compensation  must 
come  from  another  quarter.  Instead  of  increasing 
the  duration  of  the  exposure  we  must  have  a 
greater  intensity  of  light  for//5'6  than  for 7/4. 

At  first  sight  the  beginner  might  be  disposed 
to  think  that  the  selection  of  the  most  favourable 
aperture  is  a  matter  demanding  extremely  fine 
judgment  and  skill,  especially  when  there  are 
other  factors  which  may  upset  calculations. 
Many  other  advantages  arise  from  using  as  small 
an  aperture  as  possible,  such  as  increased  sharp- 
ness of  the  picture,  especially  at  the  edges.  Mr. 
Williamson  the  designer  of  the  camera  has  realised 
this,  and  as  a  result  of  his  unique  experience,  he 
has  set  down  some  very  useful  rules  to  guide  the 
beginner,  as  to  which  stop  should  be  used  for 


46     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

varying  conditions  of  light  and  subject.  In 
elaborating  this  advice  Mr.  Williamson  rightly 
commences  from  the  zero  point  as  it  were,  taking 
moving-pictures  of  a  football  match  on  a  dull 
winter  afternoon,  when,  owing  to  the  feeble 
light,  the  capacity  of  the  lens  and  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  film  are  strained  to  the  utmost. 
From  this  point  he  has  graduated  the  diaphragm 
and  its  use  as  follows  : — 


Stop. 

Subject  and  Conditions. 

F/3'5 

On  a  dull  winter's  day  ;  well-lighted 
interior  :  or  on  a  subject  at  any  time 
of  the  year  where  there  are  heavy 
shadows  such  as  under  trees. 

F/4 

On  a  bright  day  in  winter  :  on  dull 
days  in  spring  and  autumn. 

F/s-6 

Outdoor  exposures  during  September, 
October,  March,  and  April.  Dull 
summer  weather. 

F/8 

Street  scenes  in  bright  summer 
weather. 

F/n 

Open  fields  in  bright  sunshine. 

F/i6 

Bright  sea  and  sky  subjects. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  foregoing  are  not 
set  down  as  hard  and  fast  guiding  rules,  but  they 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT    47 

may  be  safely  taken  as  some  indication  of  what 
should  be  done  under  such  varying  conditions. 
They  may  be  said  to  apply  generally  to  the 
temperate  zones  where  the  conditions  are  almost 
identical,  irrespective  of  geographical  situation. 
If  the  beginner  follows  them  at  first  he  will  not 
make  very  serious  mistakes.  But,  as  has  been 
said,  experience  alone  can  finally  determine  the 
factor  of  lens  aperture. 

The  size  of  the  aperture  has  another  far- 
reaching  effect.  This  is  in  regard  to  focussing. 
With  the  2-inch  Zeiss-Tessar  lens  of  the  William- 
son camera  when  the  largest  aperture  is  used, 
nothing  important  in  the  picture  should  be  within 
a  distance  of  20  feet.  If  it  is,  it  will  not  be  in 
focus.  As  the  diaphragm  is  closed  this  distance 
decreases  proportionately  until  the  infinity,  INF, 
mark  is  reached.  At  this  point  practically 
everything  is  in  focus.  The  distance  when  other 
objects  are  in  focus  at  the  respective  stops  is  as 
follows. 

//3  '5     focus  distance    20  feet 
//4          »  „          20    „ 

flS  '6       „  „  IS     » 

fl*  „  „  12       „ 

flu        „  ,,          10    „ 

//i6        „  „          5      »» 

INF       „  „          everything. 


48     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

At  first  sight  the  fact  that  the  camera  is 
operated  by  the  turning  of  a  handle  makes  it 
seem  to  be  absurdly  simple.  One  or  two  experi- 
ments however,  will  prove  that  it  is  far  from  being 
as  easy  as  it  looks.  The  salient  point  is  to  turn 
the  handle  steadily  and  evenly  so  as  to  complete 
two  revolutions  per  second.  The  first  pictures 
will  be  found  to  be  very  unsatisfactory,  having 
an  eccentric  jerky  effect  instead  of  a  smooth  easy 
animation.  An  even  pressure  must  be  maintained 
throughout  the  complete  rotation,  and,  before 
the  beginner  attempts  to  take  any  pictures  and 
thereby  waste  expensive  film,  he  would  do  well 
to  practise  handle-turning  until  he  has  become 
proficient.  If  the  turning  movement  is  timed  with 
a  watch,  and  "one"  corresponding  to  a  second  is 
counted  for  each  double  turn,  a  perfectly  steady 
turning  movement  will  soon  be  attained.  Some 
cameras  are  fitted  with  an  indicator  which  records 
the  number  of  feet  of  film  consumed.  But  no 
anxiety  need  be  felt  if  this  convenience  is  absent. 
The  operator  need  only  count  one,  two,  three,  and 
so  on,  while  turning  the  handle,  each  number 
representing  a  double  turn.  In  this  way,  as  16 
pictures,  equivalent  to  one  foot  of  film,  are  made 
with  every  double  turn  and  every  one  count, 
the  number  reached  at  the  end  of  the  task  will 
show  how  many  feet  of  ribbon  have  been  used, 
and  if  this  is  deducted  from  the  amount  originally 


THE  CAMERA  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT    49 

held  by  the  loaded  box  it  is  easy  to  tell  the  length 
of  film  unused.  When  the  upper  box  has  been 
exhausted  and  the  lower  box  filled,  the  latter  is 
withdrawn  and  packed  away  to  be  opened  in 
the  dark  room  only.  The  empty  upper  box  is 
taken  out  and  slipped  into  the  lower  position  to 
act  as  a  receiver  from  the  next  loaded  film- 
box. 

In  photographing,  the  operator  must  keep  his 
eyes  riveted  upon  the  view  finder,  to  make  sure 
that  the  subject  he  desires  is  in  the  field  of  the 
lens.  The  movements  can  be  followed  easily,  and 
there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  most 
important  part  of  the  subject  in  the  centre  of  the 
picture. 

To  follow  the  subject  either  in  a  horizontal  or 
vertical  plane  it  is'  necessary  to  turn  the  handle 
controlling  the  panoramic  movements  of  the  tripod 
head.  This  mechanism  should  be  turned  slowly 
and  steadily  with  one  hand,  while  the  other  is 
turning  the  camera  handle.  It  is  by  no  means 
an  easy,  simple  matter  to  follow  a  subject  in  this 
way  without  any  disconcerting  jerky  movement, 
since  it  involves  doing  two  things  at  once.  For 
a  beginner  it  is  particularly  exacting,  as  an  eye 
must  be  kept  fixed  upon  the  view  finder  to  follow 
the  moving  object.  But  after  a  little  experience 
the  whole  of  these  movements  are  carried  out  in 
a  semi-mechanical  manner.  In  cinematography, 
p.c.  E 


So     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

it  is  the  diligent,  careful,  and  persevering  worker 
who  scores  successes.  In  the  beginning  failures 
may  be  galling  and  frequent,  but  practice  and 
experience  are  the  best  teachers.  One  can  soon 
become  adept  in  a  fascinating  art. 


CHAPTER  V 

HAND   CAMERA   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

DURING  the  past  few  years  competition  among 
professional  moving-picture  photographers  has 
become  exceedingly  keen,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  filming  of  topical  events.  The  operator 
often  is  faced  with  prodigious  obstacles,  the  sub- 
jugation of  which  is  not  always  easy,  or  even 
possible.  For  instance,  in  a  dense  crowd  the 
conventional  apparatus, from  its  bulkiness,  weight, 
and  proportions,  cannot  be  handled,  and,  even  if 
set  upon  its  tripod  with  the  lens  elevated  above 
the  heads  of  the  people,  there  is  the  serious 
danger  of  the  whole  being  upset  by  the  swaying 
motion  of  the  mass  of  spectators.  Yet  at  the 
same  time  a  place  in  the  crowd  constitutes  an 
ideal  point  of  view. 

Again,  there  are  many  situations  where  the 
use  of  a  tripod  is  impracticable,  if  not  dangerous. 
Take  the  aeroplane.  An  operator  seated  in  a 
flying  machine  and  desirous  of  recording  the 
moving  scenes  beneath,  cannot  support  his 
machine  upon  the  conventional  device  for  this 
purpose.  He  has  to  hold  it  as  best  he  can,  and 

E  2 


52     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

so  secure  his  pictures  under  extremely  trying 
conditions.  Although  films  innumerable  are 
taken  by  persons  seated  in  aeroplanes,  only  a 
very  small  proportion  ever  come  before  the 
public  eye,  for  the  majority  are  failures.  Nowa- 
days, also,  the  filming  of  aeroplane  flights  from 
a  fixed  point  on  the  ground  is  by  no  means 
easy.  In  order  to  follow  the  evolutions  of  flying 
machines,  more  particularly  at  comparatively 
close  ranges  and  when  travelling  at  high  speeds, 
two  operators  are  required,  one  to  turn  the 
camera  handle,  and  the  other  to  sight  and  follow 
the  object  both  through  its  horizontal  and  vertical 
planes  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  it  in  the  centre 
of  the  picture.  To  do  this  he  has  simultaneously 
to  turn  the  two  handles  operating  the  panoramic 
and  elevating  gear  of  the  tripod  head,  and  often 
in  opposite  directions.  The  task  must  be  done 
without  the  slightest  jerk,  or  the  success  of  the 
film  is  marred.  One  of  the  most  disconcerting 
effects  upon  the  screen  is  a  jumpy  panoramic 
movement  either  horizontally  .or  up  and  down. 
It  worries  the  eye,  and  more  often  than  not 
reduces  the  picture  to  an  almost  unintelligible 
blur. 

But  perhaps  the  most  unnerving  and  difficult 
conditions  under  which  moving-pictures  can  be 
taken  are  those  pertaining  to  the  filming  of  wild 
animal  life  at  close  range  under  natural  con- 


ffi   •£ 


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§  § 

—  Ji 


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HAND  CAMERA  CINEMATOGRAPHY    53 

ditions.  In  this  case  a  good  nerve,  a  steady 
hand,  and  acute  presence  of  mind,  are  indis- 
pensable. A  wild  elephant  trumpetting  madly 
and  dashing  towards  the  camera  at  full  speed, 
or  a  lion  springing  towards  the  operator  may 
form  the  subject  for  a  thrilling  incident  in  a 
film,  but  does  not  inspire  confidence  in  the 
cinematographer.  Under  such  conditions  a 
tripod  outfit  is  worse  than  useless.  It  not  only 
endangers  the  operator's  life,  but  the  pictures 
taken  under  such  conditions  are  invariably  of 
poor  quality,  even  if  they  survive  the  results 
of  the  animal's  mad  frenzy.  To  stand  one's 
ground  and  to  keep  turning  the  camera  handle 
steadily  at  two  revolutions  per  second  up  to  the 
last  moment  with  the  sang-froid  of  someone  filming 
a  street  procession  would  put  too  great  a  strain 
on  human  nature.  Even  the  coolest  man  would 
not  obtain  first-class  results  at  uncomfortably 
close  quarters.  Instead  of  turning  the  handle 
in  a  steady  rhythmic  manner  the  motion  would 
be  in  a  series  of  erratic  jerks,  some  fast  and  some 
slow,  producing  a  result  which  the  public  would 
ridicule.  Mr.  Cherry  Kearton,  whose  pictures  of 
jungle  life  constitute  some  of  the  marvels  of  the 
cinematographic  art,  considers  that  this  branch 
of  cinematography  cannot  be  excelled  for  thrilling 
excitement.  The  operator  must  stand  his  ground 
undismayed,  because  the  close-quarter  pictures 


54     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

are  always  the  most  fascinating.  Yet  at  the  same 
time  he  must  keep  a  corner  of  one  eye  fixed  upon 
an  avenue  of  retreat,  so  that  he  can  get  clear  in 
the  nick  of  time  when  the  crisis  arises.  The 
attention  given  to  the  photographic  work  must 
be  reduced  to  the  absolute  minimum,  so  as  to 
be  practically  automatic ;  the  camera  must  be  as 
small  and  as  compact  as  possible,  for  the  only 
way  of  escape  lies  often  up  a  tree. 

Several  inventors  have  devoted  their  energies 
to  the  evolution  of  a  reliable  hand-camera,  capable 
of  fulfilling  the  same  duty  in  cinematography  as 
the  snap-shot  instrument  in  still-life  work.  The 
tripod  was  sacrificed,  but  then  there  arose  another 
difficulty.  This  was  in  the  necessity  of  moving 
the  film  mechanism  by  means  of  the  handle.  In 
fact,  under  many  conditions  of  working,  such  as 
in  the  jungle,  it  would  be  quite  impracticable. 
What  was  required  was  an  efficient  moving-picture 
machine,  small,  light,  and  compact,  working  upon 
the  principle  of  "you-press-the-button-and-I'll-do- 
the-rest." 

It  is  a  perplexing  problem  to  solve,  and  the 
first  commercially  practicable  idea  in  this  direction 
was  conceived  by  the  Polish  scientist  Kasimir  de 
Proszynski.  He  has  produced  a  camera  com- 
pletely self-contained  and  wholly  automatic  in  its 
operation.  Dimensions  and  weight  have  been 
kept  down.  In  loaded  condition,  with  300  feet 


HAND  CAMERA  CINEMATOGRAPHY    55 

of  film,  it  is  12  inches  long,  8£  inches  wide, 
6^  inches  deep,  and  weighs  only  14  pounds.  It 
works  upon  the  "  press-the-button  "  system,  the 
film-moving  mechanism  and  shutter  running  the 
whole  time  the  button  is  depressed.  The  power 
comes  from  cylinders  of  compressed  air  by  which 
a  tiny  engine  is  driven.  All  that  the  operator 
has  to  do  is  to  sight  his  subject  and  to  keep  his 
finger  on  the  button,  while  he  follows  the  object 
on  the  view  finder. 

When  this  camera,  known  as  the  "  aeroscope," 
appeared  upon  the  market,  it  aroused  consider- 
able interest,  but  its  reliability  was  doubted.  It 
was  not  until  Mr.  Cherry  Kearton  decided  to 
give  it  a  trial  that  it  came  to  be  regarded  more 
seriously  as  a  feasible  moving-picture  machine. 
This  naturalist-cinematographer  took  it  with  him 
on  one  of  his  expeditions,  and  was  able  to  record 
some  startling  incidents  which  would  not  have 
been  possible  otherwise.  Familiarity  with  the 
camera  and  experience  in  the  field  convinced 
him  of  its  serviceability,  provided  that  certain 
modifications  were  effected.  These  were  carried 
out,  and  the  camera  is  now  regarded  as  an  excel- 
lent instrument  for  work  that  could  not  be 
achieved  by  any  other  machine. 

It  is  fitted,  as  has  been  said,  with  a  small  engine 
driven  by  compressed  air.  The  air  is  stored  in 
six  small  cylinders  of  an  aggregate  capacity  of 


56     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

600  feet.  This  is  sufficient  to  expose  600  feet 
of  film.  The  cylinders  are  charged  with  air  in 
the  manner  of  a  motor  tyre  and  with  a  similar 
kind  of  pump.  An  indicator  on  the  side  shows 
constantly  the  air  pressure  remaining  in  the 
reservoirs,  while  a  regulator  enables  the  speed 
to  be  varied.  The  driving  mechanism  is  very 
light,  small,  and  compact,  and  contains  but  a 
small  number  of  parts,  so  that  the  risk  of  failure 
is  not  great.  Though  it  constitutes  the  most 
delicate  part  of  the  whole  mechanism,  and  requires 
careful  handling,  it  works  remarkably  well  so 
long  as  it  is  kept  clean  and  well  lubricated. 

Another  prominent  feature  of  the  mechanism 
is  what  is  termed  an  equilibrator.  Practically 
speaking  this  is  a  small  gyroscope,  and  is 
introduced  to  subdue  any  small  vibrations  or 
tremblings  which  arise  while  the  instrument  is 
working.  This  part  of  the  mechanism  has  been 
criticized  on  the  ground  that  a  gyroscope,  to  be 
effective,  must  be  of  appreciable  weight.  Many 
operators  dispute  the  necessity  for  its  introduc- 
tion. They  point  out  that  the  beneficial  effects 
are  not  proportionate  to  the  extra  weight 
involved.  Furthermore,  being  an  additional 
piece  of  mechanism,  it  enhances  the  risk  of 
derangement.  Against  these  contentions,  how- 
ever, the  operators  who  have  worked  the 
instrument  maintain  that  it  nullifies  all  the 


THE  LESS,  SHUTTER,  COMPRESSED  AIR-DRIVEN  MECHANISM, 
AND  GYROSCOPE,  WHICH  COUNTERACTS  SLIGHT  VIBRA- 
TIONS, OF  THE  •'  AEROSCOPE." 


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HAND  CAMERA  CINEMATOGRAPHY    57 

vibrations  set  up  by  the  driving  mechanism, 
which,  though  apparently  slight,  would  otherwise 
suffice  to  spoil  the  pictures.  Seeing  that  the  sole 
object  of  employing  this  camera  is  the  elimination 
of  a  rigid  support  such  as  a  tripod,  it  certainly 
seems  worth  while,  even  at  the  cost  of  added 
weight,  to  gain  some  compensating  steadiness. 
And  the  vibration  of  the  air  engine  increases  the 
need. 

In  operating  this  instrument  the  usual  method 
is  to  hold  the  camera  against  the  chest  and  one 
cheek,  thereby  bringing  the  eye  on  a  level  with 
the  sighting  piece.  By  letting  the  elbows  rest 
against  the  body  the  weight  is  easily  and  steadily 
supported.  Held  in  this  position  the  minimum 
of  fatigue  is  felt  by  the  cinematographer,  while 
he  is  given  complete  control  over  the  mechanism. 
It  can  also  be  used  when  the  operator  is  on 
horseback,  the  method  of  support  being  virtually 
the  same.  But  in  this  case  only  one  hand  is 
used ;  the  other  is  left  free  to  control  the  horse. 
Another  advantage  of  the  system  is  the  ease 
with  which  the  camera  can  be  swung  round  in 
order  to  follow  a  moving  object  steadily. 

Photographers  who  use  a  hand-camera  are 
familiar  with  the  disturbances  set  up  by  the 
motion  of  the  body  in  breathing.  This  is  often 
sufficient  to  spoil  a  picture  if  care  is  not  displayed 
at  the  instant  of  exposure.  With  the  aeroscope — 


58     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

owing  to  the  exposure  being  from  -fa  to  ^  of  a 
second,  relatively  long  in  comparison  with  snap- 
shotting where  the  exposure  is  often  only  the 
2^5,  or  even  less,  of  a  second — these  disturbances 
are  somewhat  more  acute.  Considerable  practice 
is  required  before  this  difficulty  can  be  overcome. 
Some  operators  who  have  used  the  aeroscope 
prefer  to  utilise  a  convenient  support,  if  available, 
such  as  a  wall,  or  the  stump  of  a  tree,  thereby 
making  sure  of  a  solid  rigid  foundation.  But 
in  cinematography  the  ill-effects  arising  from 
respiration  are  not  so  serious  as  in  still-life  work. 
A  picture  here  and  there  may  show  its  effects, 
but  they  pass  unnoticed.  They  are  subdued, 
as  it  were,  by  the  unblemished  pictures  which 
precede  and  follow. 

Another  camera  of  this  type  is  the  "Jury 
Autocam"  which,  as  its  name  implies,  works 
upon  the  automatic  "  press-the-button  "  system. 
This  camera  is  fitted  with  a  small  electric  motor, 
driven  by  a  small  dry  battery,  and  brought  into 
action  by  the  pressure  of  a  button.  A  small  side- 
lever  controls  the  picture-taking  speed,  which  can 
be  varied  while  the  mechanism  is  running.  The 
camera  itself  is  exactly  similar  to  the  "Jury 
Duplex "  model,  the  only  addition  being  a  small 
separate  case,  about  2  inches  in  depth,  fitted  to 
the  base  of  the  instrument,  and  a  covered  chain 
gearing  on  one  side  for  transmitting  the  power 


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From  the  "  Cinema  College,"  by  permission  of  the  Motograph  Co. 

VULTURE  PREPARING  TO  FLY. 


HAND  CAMERA  CINEMATOGRAPHY    59 

from  the  motor  to  the  camera  mechanism.  This 
camera  likewise  is  fitted  with  a  small  balancing 
apparatus  to  counteract  slight  vibrations. 

In  such  instruments  as  these  the  even  running 
of  the  motor  is  a  vital  factor.  It  must  not  run 
any  faster  when  the  reservoir  or  battery  is  fully 
charged  than  when  it  is  nearly  exhausted,  nor 
must  there  be  any  variations  of  speed,  for 
eccentricities  of  this  sort  are  apt  to  spoil  the  film. 
The  governing  therefore  requires  to  be  most 
delicate  and  thorough.  Another  difficulty  is  the 
incorporation  of  a  reservoir  capable  of  carrying 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  air  at  the  necessary 
pressure  to  drive  the  length  of  film  for  which  it 
is  rated.  In  the  "Jury  Autocam "  a  length  of 
100  feet  can  be  driven  on  a  single  battery  charge. 
This  is  adequate  for  many  purposes,  but  a  length 
of  at  least  200  feet  is  generally  to  be  preferred. 
The  camera  is  being  adapted  to  meet  these 
conditions,  and  it  is  anticipated  that  no  more 
difficulty  will  be  met  in  consummating  this  end, 
than  was  involved  in  making  the  camera  drive  a 
100  feet  length. 

While  it  is  a  moot  point  whether  the  automatic 
cinematograph  camera  will  ever  displace  the 
orthodox  machine  entirely,  it  is  a  useful  and 
even  indispensable  machine  for  working  under 
difficulties.  It  has  been  used  in  the  aeroplane 
and  has  been  found  successful.  It  is  also  of  the 


60     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

utmost  use  in  close-range  dangerous  work,  or  in 
situations  where  the  turning  of  the  handle  by 
hand  is  liable  to  be  carried  out  imperfectly  and 
unsteadily.  The  aeroscope  camera  has  been  used 
on  many  notable  expeditions  such  as  those  of 
Paul  Rainey,  and  others  in  Africa,  and  is  used 
exclusively  by  Mr.  Cherry  Kearton  in  his  daring 
work  in  tight  corners.  Many  of  the  thrilling  and 
exciting  pictures  taken  in  the  haunts  of  wild 
animals  have  been  secured  therewith,  and  these 
films  show  convincingly  what  can  be  done 
with  the  instrument  when  it  is  handled  by  an 
expert. 

But  the  true  province  of  the  hand  cinemato- 
graph camera  undoubtedly  is  in  connection  with 
rush  work.  For  the  filming  of  topical  incidents 
it  is  invaluable.  The  operator  is  not  tramelled 
with  a  bulky  outfit.  He  carries  his  camera  in 
his  hand  or  slings  it  across  his  back  in  the 
manner  of  a  knap-sack.  When  he  wishes  to  film 
an  incident  he  is  not  harassed  even  by  the  crowd. 
He  is  not  compelled  to  set  up  a  tripod  or  to  climb 
to  an  elevated  point  to  get  clear  of  the  sea  of 
heads.  He  can  hold  the  camera  above  his  head, 
and  by  means  of  a  second  and  special  view  finder 
placed  on  the  under  side  of  the  instrument  he 
can  sight  and  follow  the  subject  while  pressing 
the  button.  Thus  he  records  the  episode  as 
easily  as  if  he  were  placed  in  the  most  advan- 


HAND  CAMERA  CINEMATOGRAPHY    61 

tageous  raised  position,  and  could  manipulate 
the  machine  in  the  orthodox  manner.  When  his 
work  is  completed  he  can  get  away  without 
any  delay,  because  the  small  box  contains  every- 
thing. 

On  the  whole,  however,  the  hand  moving- 
picture  camera  is  scarcely  yet  a  suitable  instru- 
ment for  beginners.  The  invention  is  in  its 
infancy,  and  although  clever  men  are  striving 
to  make  it  more  simple  and  reliable,  many 
peculiar  problems  still  remain  to  be  solved.  But 
in  the  hands  of  an  expert  operator  it  is  capable  of 
doing  first-class  work. 


CHAPTER  VI 

DEVELOPING  THE    FILM 

THE  beginner,  when  he  handles  for  the  first 
time  a  coil  of  sensitized  film  measuring  if  inches 
in  width,  and  perhaps  200  feet  in  length,  might 
hesitate  to  attempt  its  development.  He  might 
prefer  to  despatch  it  to  a  firm  prepared  to  carry 
out  this  work  for  a  light  charge,  confident  that 
with  the  facilities  at  their  command,  and  with 
their  accumulated  experience,  they  would  be 
able  to  bring  out  his  work  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

But  the  man  who  aspires  to  succeed  in  topical 
work  for  the  local  picture  palace  or  general 
market,  especially  if  he  is  not  within  easy  reach 
of  a  post  office,  must  be  prepared  to  undertake 
the  task  himself.  As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  by  no 
means  so  difficult  as  it  appears  at  first  sight,  and 
the  rudiments  of  the  process  may  be  grasped 
readily  by  a  person  of  average  intelligence. 
Success,  as  in  other  handicrafts,  only  can  be 
achieved  with  practice. 

Cinematography,  being  a  peculiar  and  special 
branch  of  the  photographic  art,  demanding  the 


DEVELOPING  THE   FILM  63 

use  of  new  and  unfamiliar  tools,  has  been  respon- 
sible for  the  perfection  of  particular  devices  and 
methods  to  assist  and  facilitate  development.  In 
the  early  days  the  worker  had  to  worry  through 
the  task,  and  was  compelled  to  undertake  a  host 
of  doubtful  experiments.  The  beginner  of  to-day 
is  able  to  profit  from  the  mistakes  of  the  pioneers, 
and  the  appliances  and  processes  at  his  disposal 
are  those  of  approved  application.  After  one  or 
two  trials  the  worker  will  realise  that  the  develop- 
ment of  a  200-feet  length  of  celluloid  ribbon  is 
no  more  difficult  than  the  development  of  an 
ordinary  Kodak  spool. 

One  thing  the  beginner  will  do  well  to  bear  in 
mind.  He  should  adopt  some  particular  brand 
of  film,  and  cling  to  it  after  he  has  become 
acquainted  with  its  emulsion,  speed,  composition, 
and  peculiar  characteristics.  There  are  three  or 
four  different  makes  of  film  upon  the  market,  but 
it  is  preferable  to  select  a  film  which  is  easily 
obtainable  at  any  time  and  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  I  would  strongly  urge  the  beginner  to 
select  the  Eastman  stock  for  this  if  for  no  other 
reason.  The  Eastman  organisation  has  its  ten- 
tacles spread  throughout  the  world.  It  has 
thousands  of  agencies  in  immediate  touch  with 
the  different  national  companies.  The  result  is 
that  this  film  can  be  purchased  without  difficulty 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  globe.  If  a  local  dealer 


64     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

does  not  stock  it,  he  can  procure  it  to  order  within 
a  day  or  two.  Moreover  the  film  will  be  new  and 
in  perfect  condition. 

Thereare  many  other  reasons  why  it  is  advisable 
to  select  and   to  adhere  to   this  stock,   which, 
although  of  a  technical  character,  are  of  much 
importance  to  the  user.      It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  technics  and  chemistry  of  cinema- 
tography are  still  in  their  infancy,  and  the  technical 
staff  retained  for  the  preparation  of  the  various 
ingredients  employed  in  the  sensitizing  of  the  film 
are  striving  constantly  to  improve  and  to  increase 
the  speed  or  sensitiveness  of  the  emulsion.     The 
result  is  that  the  worker  who  uses  Eastman  film 
keeps  pace  with  developments.    The  makers  of 
this  ribbon  were  the  first  to  discover  a  base  and 
emulsion  suited   to  moving-picture  work.    This 
was  achieved  only  after  the  expenditure  of  enor- 
mous sums  of  money,  after  hundreds  of  fruitless 
experiments,   and  with   the  co-operation  of  the 
highest  technical  and  chemical  skill.     Under  these 
circumstances  the  limitations  of  the  base  and  of 
the  emulsion  become  thoroughly  understood,  so 
that  the  film  is  certain  to  maintain  the  highest 
quality.     On  the  other  hand,  those  firms  who  have 
embarked  upon  the  manufacture  of  the  commodity 
only  within  recent  years,  have  still  to  face  and  to 
overcome  many  pitfalls  which  the  older  concern 
discovered  and  surmounted  years  ago.     So  the 


By  permission  of  Jury's  Kine.  Supplies,  Ltd. 

WINDING  THE  DEVELOPING  FRAME. 

The  film  is  transferred  from  the  exposed  film-box  to  a  revolv- 
ing frame,  emulsion  side  outermost. 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  65 

film  marketed  by  younger  organisations  is  apt  to 
vary  in  its  quality. 

Before  the  beginner  attempts  development  he 
must  make  sure  that  his  dark  room  and  accessories 
are  adequate.  To  seek  success  with  makeshifts 
in  the  first  instance  is  to  court  heart-rending 
failure.  Many  of  the  utensils  employed  in  the 
dark  room  can  be  fashioned  by  any  handy  man. 
They  may  lack  finish,  but  so  long  as  they 
perform  their  work  properly  nothing  more  is 
necessary. 

The  dark  room  must  be  spacious,  for  cramped 
conditions  are  fatal  to  satisfactory  work.  An 
expert  will  perform  his  task  successfully,  if  the 
exigencies  arise,  in  a  small  cupboard,  but  the 
beginner  will  find  that  the  more  space  he  has  at 
his  command  the  easier  he  will  be  able  to  complete 
his  task.  The  room  should  measure  10  feet  in 
length  by  6  feet  wide  at  least  In  a  corner,  or  at 
some  other  convenient  point  along  the  wall,  there 
should  be  an  ordinary  sink  provided  with  free 
waste  and  with  ample  supplies  of  water  laid  onto 
a  tap  above.  On  one  or  other  side  of  this  sink, 
there  should  be  a  bench,  3  feet  in  width,  for  the 
purpose  of  the  developing,  fixing,  rinsing,  and 
other  baths. 

At  least  four  trays  will  be  required,  three  being 
for  solutions  and  one  for  rinsing.    Each   tray 
should  be  at  least  33  inches  square  inside,  by 
P.C.  F 


66     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

about  6  inches  in  depth.  These  trays  may  be 
made  of  wood  throughout,  with  dove-tailed  sides, 
and  tongued  and  grooved  bottom,  or  the  bottom 
may  be  made  of  glass.  If  the  work  of  dove-tailing 
seems  too  difficult,  the  sides  and  bottom  need  only 
be  nailed  or  screwed  together,  but  in  this  case  a 
lining  of  waterproof  fabric  should  be  fixed  to  the 
wood.  Trays  of  this  type  are  inexpensive,  and 
are  quite  as  good  as  those  of  a  more  elaborate 
character.  In  some  developing  works  lead-lined 
trays  are  used,  but  they  are  weighty  and  cumber- 
some to  handle.  In  order  to  draw  off  the  solution 
when  necessary  it  is  well  to  fit  a  drain  and  plug 
in  the  bottom  of  the  tray  by  which  the  contents 
can  escape  into  the  storage  vessel  placed  beneath 
the  bench. 

Sometimes  a  vertical  tank  is  used.  This  system 
is  maintained  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  as  it 
enables  the  solution  to  be  kept  more  easily  in 
movement.  The  tank,  in  this  case,  should  be 
33  inches  high  by  33  inches  wide,  and  6  inches 
from  front  to  back.  These  are  inside  measure- 
ments. It  must  be  lined  with  waterproof  material 
or  with  thin  sheet  lead  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
tray.  For  the  purposes  of  the  small  worker,  the 
tank  process  is  more  expensive,  owing  to  the 
greater  quantity  of  solution  that  it  requires ;  so, 
for  ordinary  and  limited  working,  the  tray  is 
recommended.  It  should  be  fitted  with  a  rocker 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  67 

so  as  to  enable  the  solution  to  be  kept  flowing 
evenly  over  the  surface  of  the  film. 

The  film  is  mounted  upon  a  special  frame.  A 
frame  made  of  wood  is  most  generally  used  This 
likewise  a  handy  man  can  make  at  home,  although 
it  is  not  expensive  to  buy.  The  middle  of  each 
side  of  the  frame  is  fitted  with  a  short  pin  to 


FIG.  2.— The  "Pin"  Frame. 

serve  as  a  spindle  and  to  facilitate  spinning  round 
when  the  frame  is  mounted  upon  its  stand.  Each 
transverse  end  is  provided  with  guide  pins  for 
winding  the  film. 

The  other  type  is  known  as  the  pin  frame.  Its 
design  may  be  gathered  from  Fig.  2.  It  is  a 
light  skeleton  frame  with  vertical  pins  projecting 
from  the  four  diagonal  members.  The  spool  is 
slipped  on  the  central  spindle  and  the  film  is 

F  2 


68     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

unwound  and  passed  round  the  pin  on  one 
diagonal,  then  to  the  relative  pins  on  the  three 
other  members.  It  is  then  taken  round  the 
second  pin  on  the  first  diagonal,  followed  round 
the  relative  pins  on  the  other  three  members,  and 
so  on  until  the  whole  film  has  been  uncoiled,  the 
pins  on  the  other  four  cross  members  being  called 
into  requisition  as  additional  supports  when  the 
frame  is  about  half  covered.  When  the  film  is 
mounted  upon  this  frame  it  is  in  the  form  of  an 
endless  square  spiral.  When  the  frame  is  laid 
in  the  bath  of  solution  the  film  stands  edgewise. 
The  wooden  frame,  however,  is  now  almost 
exclusively  used,  as  it  is  easier  and  simpler  to 
work.  The  film  can  be  transferred  to  it  in  a 
shorter  space  of  time,  and  the  frame  with  the 
film  upon  it  can  be  handled  more  safely. 

The  ruby  light  may  be  either  electricity,  gas, 
or  oil,  but  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  make 
absolutely  certain  that  the  light  is  non-actinic, 
and  is  not  too  powerful,  otherwise  the  film,  which 
is  extremely  sensitive,  will  be  fogged  during 
development.  The  safety  of  the  light  may  be 
tested  in  a  very  simple  and  easy  manner.  Cut 
off  about  6  inches  of  film  from  the  unexposed 
reel,  lay  it  flat  upon  the  developing  bench,  emul- 
sion side  uppermost,  in  full  view  of  the  ruby 
light.  Place  two  or  three  coins  upon  the  emulsion 
and  leave  them  there  for  a  few  minutes.  Then 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  69 

develop  the  strip  in  a  covered  dish.  If  the  space 
surrounding  the  places  where  the  coins  were 
laid  comes  up  grey,  then  it  shows  that  the  light 
is  unsafe,  because  the  exposed  emulsion  sur- 
rounding the  coins  has  become  fogged.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  no  signs  of  the  position  of  the  coins 
are  revealed  upon  the  developed  strip,  the  light 
is  perfectly  safe. 

The  trays  should  be  placed  side  by  side  along 
the  bench.  The  one  which  is  used  for  developing 
should  stand  furthest  from  the  ruby  light  If 
space  will  allow,  the  rinsing  bath  should  be 
placed  next  to  it,  but  if  this  is  impossible  the 
fixing  bath  may  be  placed  there.  A  division 
board  should  be  set  up  between  the  two  trays, 
rising  some  10  or  12  inches  above  their  upper 
edges.  This  will  prevent  the  fixing  solution 
splashing  into  the  developing  bath  and  spoiling 
it  Various  formulae  have  been  prepared  for 
development,  each  of  which  has  certain  advan- 
tages. As  may  be  supposed,  each  firm  has 
evolved  a  formula  which  it  has  found  from 
experience  to  give  the  best  results.  Obviously 
these  formulae  are  secret  But  the  most  satis- 
factory for  the  beginner  is  that  advocated  by  the 
Eastman  Company.  It  possesses  the  advantage 
of  having  been  prepared  by  the  chemists  who 
are  responsible  for  the  emulsion,  who  understand 
its  particular  characteristics  and  also  its  limita- 


7o     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

tions.  The  majority  of  other  formulae  are  based 
more  or  less  upon  this  one,  which  is  applicable 
and  adaptable  to  all  kinds  of  work.  It  has  the 
quality  of  bringing  the  picture  out  to  the  utmost 
degree,  and  by  its  means  many  of  the  errors  in 
exposure  may  be  corrected  during  development. 

The     developing    solution    is    made    up     as 
follows : — 


Avoirdupois. 

Metric. 

Sodium  sulphite      (des.)     ... 
Sodium  carbonate   (  „  ) 

5302. 
25     ,, 

1,575  grammes 
750 

Metol    

1  80  grains 

12 

Hydrochinon  (hydroquinone) 
Potassium  bromide  

8  02. 
i  oz.  63  grains 

237 

34         .. 

Citric  acid 

400  grains 

Potassium  metabisulphite  ... 

2  OZ. 

60 

Water       (Imperial  measure)  ) 
„     (United  States       „      )j 

8J  gallons 
10         ,, 

40  litres 

The  ingredients  must  be  mixed  in  the  order 
indicated.  All  the  chemicals  are  readily  and 
cheaply  obtainable  at  any  photographic  chemists 
and  drug  stores.  After  preparation  the  developer 
will  keep  for  a  long  period  so  long  as  the 
bottle  is  well  stoppered  and  kept  in  a  cool  place. 
Only  the  highest  grade  chemicals  of  a  reputable 
brand  should  be  used.  A  slight  saving  in  the 
purchase  of  these  essentials  is  false  economy, 
because  a  film  costing  one  hundred  or  more 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  71 

times    the    money    saved    in    the    outlay    upon 
chemicals  may  thus  be  ruined. 

In  cases  of  over-exposure,  perhaps  the  most 
common  fault  of  the  beginner  who  does  not 
understand  the  stopping  down  of  the  lens,  a 
restrainer  is  necessary.  This  is  composed  of 
the  following: — 


Potassium  bromide 
Water      

Avoirdupois. 

Metric. 

I  OZ. 

10  oz. 

30  grammes 
300  cubic  centimetres 

The  process  of  development  is  as  follows. 
First,  the  film  is  transferred  from  the  dark  film- 
box  of  the  camera  to  the  frame.  The  latter,  if  it 
is  of  the  wooden  type,  can  be  spun  round  freely 
when  mounted  on  its  stand.  It  is  not  advisable 
for  the  beginner  to  withdraw  the  coil  of  film 
bodily  from  the  box  until  he  is  expert  in  winding 
the  frame,  otherwise,  to  his  surprise  and  disgust, 
the  spool  may  fall  out  and  the  film  be  precipitated 
to  the  floor  in  an  inextricable  tangle.  He  should 
let  it  remain  in  the  dark  box  until  it  is  removed 
by  being  drawn  slowly  through  the  velvet-lined 
slot  The  free  end  of  the  film  should  be  fixed 
with  a  drawing  pin  to  one  end-bar  of  the  frame, 
and  contained  between  two  guide  pins,  with  the 
emulsion  side  outermost  The  emulsion  side 


72     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

can  be  recognized  even  in  the  subdued  light  of 
the  dark  room  because  it  has  a  matt  surface,  while 
the  other  side  is  glossy.  The  difference  between 
the  two  sides  can  also  be  detected  by  the  touch. 
When  the  end  of  the  film  has  been  attached  to 
one  end-bar  the  frame  is  turned,  the  film  mean- 
while being  permitted  to  slide  out  of  the  dark 
box,  until  the  opposite  end  of  the  frame  comes 
up.  The  film  is  passed  over  this  bar,  also 
between  the  first  pair  of  guide  pins,  and  once 
more,  with  a  half-turn  to  the  frame,  the  film 
passes  along  the  second  side  of  the  frame  back 
to  the  first  bar,  between  the  succeeding  pair  of 
guide  pins,  over  the  top  and  back  again  to  the 
opposite  bar,  this  process  being  continued  until 
the  coil  of  film  is  unrolled,  when  the  second 
extremity  is  likewise  fixed  to  the  bar  by  means 
of  a  drawing  pin.  The  film  while  being  wound 
must  not  be  drawn  too  tightly  ;  at  the  same  time 
it  must  not  be  too  slack.  When  winding  has 
been  completed,  the  frame  and  film  will  have  the 
appearance  shown  in  the  illustration  facing  p.  65. 
The  guide  pins  in  the  end  bars  prevent  the  edges 
from  overlapping  or  touching.  The  result  is  the 
presentation  of  two  emulsion  faces  on  either  side 
of  the  frame  and  each  face  resembles  the  sensitized 
side  of  a  dry  plate. 

In  winding  the  film  upon  the  frame,  and  indeed 
during  all  the  operations,  the  operator  should  be 


By  permission  of 


Williamson  Kinc.  Co.,  Ltd. 


THE  FILM  WOUND  ON  FRAME  AND  PLACED  IN 
THE  DEVELOPING  TRAY. 


By  permission  of  Jury's  Kine.  Supplies,  Ltd. 

THE  JURY  COMBINED  CAMERA  AND  PRINTER. 


DEVELOPING  THE   FILM  73 

careful  not  to  touch  the  gelatine  coating  of  the 
ribbon  with  his  fingers.  The  finger  nails  should 
be  kept  well  trimmed  so  that  scratching  may  be 
avoided.  A  touched  film  is  usually  marked,  for 
the  touch  leaves  a  deposit  of  grease,  which  inter- 
feres with  the  action  of  the  developer. 

The  frame,  with  the  film  wound  upon  it,  is 
lifted  off  the  stand  and  carefully  placed  in  the 
developing  bath,  into  which  the  developing  solu- 
tion has  already  been  poured.  If  it  is  inserted 
gently  no  air  bubbles  or  bells  will  form  on  the 
emulsion,  but  if  there  should  be  any  such  they 
can  be  removed  at  once  by  means  of  a  large,  flat, 
soft,  camel  hair  brush.  In  order  to  secure  first- 
class  results,  the  developing  solution  should  be 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  65°  Fahr. 

The  developing  solution  is  rapid  in  its  action 
and  the  film  must  be  watched  closely.  The 
frame  must  be  kept  rocking  so  that  the  solution 
may  remain  in  movement.  This  enables  it  to 
act  upon  the  whole  surface  of  the  film  equally. 
Should  development  take  place  too  quickly — 
(i.e.  the  images  flash  up  almost  instantly) — the 
frame  should  be  removed  at  once  from  the 
developer  and  immersed  in  the  rinsing  tray  to 
allow  a  few  drams  of  the  restrainer  solution 
to  be  poured  into,  and  mixed  with,  the  developer. 
On  the  other  hand  the  film  may  be  under-exposed, 
and  then  the  images  will  appear  very  slowly. 


74     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

Development  proceeds  exactly  as  in  the  case 
of  a  glass  plate,  and  the  same  judgment  is 
required  to  determine  when  the  process  has  been 
carried  far  enough.  When  this  point  has  been 
reached  the  frame  is  lifted  out  of  the  developer 
and  placed  in  the  rinsing  tray  to  receive  a 
thorough  washing.  Water  is  a  kind  friend  in 
cinematography  and  should  be  used  ungrudg- 
ingly. Three  or  four  thorough  flushes  will 
suffice  to  rinse  the  film  satisfactorily,  and  then  the 
frame  is  placed  in  the  fixing  bath.  This  is  made 
up  as  follows : — 


Water  

Hyposulphite  of  soda 
Sulphite          


Avoirdupois. 


64  oz.  (fluid) 


Metric. 


2,000  c.c. 
480  grammes 

22 


When  fully  dissolved  add  the  following 
hardener. 


Powdered  alum 
Citric  acid 


15  grammes 


During  fixing  the  frame  should  be  kept  rocked 
so  that  every  trace  of  undeveloped  silver  salts 
may  be  removed  from  the  film.  Then  it  is 
transferred  to  the  washing  tray  and  submitted 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  75 

to  a  thorough  washing  in  frequent  changes  of 
water  for  some  twenty  minutes.  The  film  is  now 
ready  for  its  final  treatment.  This  is  immersion 
in  the  soaking  solution  : — 


Water  ...  '[ 
Glycerine       

Avoirdupois. 

Metric. 

32  oz. 
I    „ 

1,000  C.C. 

30    » 

This  final  bath  is  not  always  used,  but  it  is 
desirable  if  the  negative  film  is  to  be  kept  for 
any  length  of  time.  Immersion  in  this  soaking 
solution  prevents  the  gelatine  coating  of  the 
film  from  becoming  hard  and  horny.  After 
remaining  in  this  bath  for  five  minutes  the  frame 
is  lifted  out,  and  returned  to  its  stand,  where 
the  excess  of  glycerine  and  water  is  removed  by 
wiping  with  a  soft  cloth. 

It  will  be  seen  that  OHce  the  film  is  wound 
upon  the  frame  it  is  not  removed  during  the 
whole  process  of  development,  and  may  be  left 
in  the  same  position  during  the  drying  period. 
But  if  the  drying  is  to  be  quickly  performed 
the  frame  must  be  of  what  is  known  as  the 
spring  type,  so  that  it  does  not  keep  the  same 
area  of  film  constantly  pressing  upon  the  curved 
end-bars.  Otherwise  the  film  would  retain  this 


76     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

shape  when  it  has  been  dried  and  the  kink  would 
be  irremovable.  To  avoid  this  defect  it  is  just 
as  well  to  transfer  the  film  from  the  frame  to  a 
drum  (see  illustration  facing  p.  72).  This  is  an 
easy  matter.  The  drum  is  mounted  upon  a  stand 
so  as  to  be  free  to  revolve  easily.  Detach  one 
end  of  the  film  from  the  developing  frame,  and 
attach  it  to  the  drum  by  means  of  a  drawing  pin. 
The  emulsion  side,  of  course,  must  face  outwards. 
Then  by  unwinding  the  frame  and  rotating  the 
drum  simultaneously  the  film  becomes  wound 
spirally  upon  the  drum.  Another  pin  will  secure 
the  second  end  of  the  film.  The  drum  is  an 
inexpensive  and  very  handy  accessory  to  the 
moving-picture  photographer,  especially  in  the 
drying  operation,  when  forceful  methods  have 
to  be  adopted. 

Unfortunately  the  drying  of  the  film  cannot  be 
accelerated  to  any  great  extent.  The  hardening 
of  the  gelatine  emulsion  cannot  be  hastened,  as 
in  glass  plate  work,  by  immersion  in  a  bath  of 
methylated  spirits  or  some  other  evaporative 
agent,  since  the  alcohol  contained  therein  would 
dissolve  the  celluloid  base.  The  only  available 
means  is  a  current  of  warm,  dry,  clean  air. 
While  the  well-equipped  factory  is  fitted  with 
a  special  drying  room,  such  a  facility  is  beyond 
the  resources  of  the  average  independent  worker, 
who  must  therefore  be  content  to  revolve  his 


DEVELOPING  THE  FILM  77 

frame  or  drum  continuously,  until  the  gelatine 
has  hardened  sufficiently.  The  process  can  be 
accelerated  to  a  certain  extent  by  revolving  the 
drum  or  frame  over  a  steam  radiator,  or  some 
other  form  of  heating  which  emits  no  smoke  or 
flame,  but  the  temperature  of  the  air  must  not 
be  raised  too  high  or  the  gelatine  coating  will  be 
injured.  If  the  weather  is  fine  and  calm,  the 
drying  may  be  done  upon  a  lawn  in  the  open  air, 
but  in  any  event  extreme  care  must  be  observed 
to  prevent  dust  settling  upon  the  gelatine  while 
it  is  wet  and  soft,  or  irreparable  injury  will  be 
inflicted.  So  it  behoves  the  worker  to  keep  his 
dark  room  and  drying  room  free  from  dust. 
Drying  should  not  be  done  in  the  dark  room 
because  there  are  small  particles  of  chemical  dust 
always  floating  about  in  such  surroundings.  If 
these  should  settle  upon  the  emulsion  they  would 
play  sad  havoc  with  it 

When  the  gelatine  has  hardened  the  film  may- 
be transferred  direct  from  the  drum  to  a  spool 
by  means  of  a  winder.  When  the  beginner  has 
become  expert  he  will  be  able  to  do  this  by  hand, 
but  it  is  never  a  wise  practice  since  the  coating 
is  liable  to  become  scratched.  The  spool-winder 
is  inexpensive  and  does  the  work  much  more 
quickly,  while  the  risk  of  damaging  the  film  is 
eliminated. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  it  is  well  to  develop 


78     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

the  film  as  soon  as  possible  after  exposure. 
Although  the  exposed  film  is  kept  in  a  dark 
box,  the  chemical  action  set  up  by  exposure 
before  the  lens,  continues,  as  in  dry-plate  and 
snap-shot  photography,  and  in  a  more  rapid 
manner.  Consequently  the  film  should  not  be 
left  undeveloped  for  more  than  a  few  days  at 
the  utmost.  While  prompt  development  is  usual 
in  topical  work,  there  are  other  sorts  of  work 
in  which  the  operator  may  feel  tempted  to  put 
the  film  on  one  side  for  development  at  a  later 
and  more  convenient  time.  Perhaps  several 
weeks  may  elapse,  and  then  complete  amazement 
is  expressed  at  the  result.  In  the  unexposed 
condition,  however,  Eastman  stock  will  last 
many  months  so  long  as  it  is  not  removed  from 
the  case  in  which  it  is  packed  at  the  works. 
Equal  care  must  be  used  in  storing  the  developed 
negative  films.  They  must  be  kept  in  a  cool 
dry  place,  protected  from  severe  fluctuations  in 
temperature  and  climatic  effects. 


CHAPTER   VII 

PRINTING   THE    POSITIVE 

THEORETICALLY  there  is  no  operation  in  the 
whole  art  of  cinematography  which  is  more  com- 
plex than  the  preparation  of  the  positive.  This 
is  used  for  projecting  the  image  on  the  screen, 
and  is  the  result  upon  which  popular  criticism 
is  passed.  Also,  in  the  process  of  printing  the 
positive,  several  short-comings  in  the  negative 
can  be  corrected. 

At  the  same  time,  from  the  practical  point  of 
view,  the  preparation  of  the  positive  is  simple. 
The  beginner  who  has  mastered  the  somewhat 
intricate  process  of  development,  need  not  appre- 
hend any  greater  difficulties  than  those  he  has 
already  overcome  before  he  essays  to  print  his 
positive.  In  practice  he  will  soon  become  pro- 
ficient, though  he  may  retain  rather  hazy  ideas 
of  the  theory  of  the  matter. 

The  essentials  for  the  preparation  of  the  positive 
are  a  printing  machine  and  an  illuminant.  The 
appliances  and  methods  of  operation  differ  com- 
pletely from  those  used  in  any  other  branch  of 
photography,  so  that  a  new  art  virtually  has  to 


8o     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

be  mastered.  Fortunately,  the  beginner  gets 
assistance  from  those  masters  of  the  craft,  who, 
having  left  the  producing  for  the  manufacturing 
side  of  the  industry,  willingly  give  advice  to  the 
tyro.  By  following  the  few  rules  which  these 
early  workers  lay  down,  the  beginner  will  not  go 
far  wrong,  and  will  not  run  the  risk  of  incurring 
many  dispiriting  failures.  While  the  large  pro- 
fessional firms  use  elaborate  and  costly  printing 
machines,  the  amateur  is  able  to  get  just  as  good 
results  with  simpler  and  cheaper  apparatus.  He 
could  not  wish  for  a  better  equipment  than  the 
Williamson  printer,  which  costs  only  £4  IQS. 
($22.50),  or  the  Jury  Duplex,  which  is  a  combined 
camera  and  printer. 

So  far  as  the  illuminant  is  concerned  this 
depends  upon  circumstances.  In  most  towns  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  electric  light,  which  is  the 
simplest,  and  taken  all  round,  the  most  reliable 
and  satisfactory  illuminant.  If  this  is  not  avail- 
able, gas  and  an  incandescent  mantle  may  be 
used.  Failing  either  of  these  conveniences, 
acetylene  or  petrol  gas,  the  latter  with  the  incan- 
descent gas  mantle,  can  take  their  place.  Even 
daylight  may  be  used. 

Success  in  printing  depends  upon  a  correct 
judgment  of  the  intensity  of  the  light,  and  of  the 
density  of  the  film.  This  enables  one  to  estimate 
the  exposure  required.  Obviously  this  knowledge 


PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE  81 

can  only  be  acquired  in  the  school  of  practice. 
The  same  experience  is  needed  to  estimate  the 
length  of  the  exposure  in  making  lantern  slides, 
or  in  bromide  printing.  But  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  in  the  cinematograph  film  one  is  working 
with  a  much  more  sensitive  emulsion. 

A  very  good  practice  for  the  beginner  is  to 
make  experimental  exposures  with  short  lengths 
of  film — say  12  inches — making  the  tests  with 
sections  of  the  negative  which  vary  in  density, 
at  various  distances  from  the  light,  and  at  different 
speeds.  A  careful  note  should  be  made  of  each 
trial.  In  this  way  one  can  estimate  the  exposure 
and  learn  how  it  should  be  varied  at  different 
points  of  the  negative  where  the  density  varies. 
Moreover,  the  knowledge  will  be  acquired  at 
comparatively  little  expense. 

If  the  negative  has  been  over-exposed  or  over- 
developed, or  both,  a  common  error  in  the  first 
attempts,  it  will  naturally  be  very  dense,  and  will 
demand  a  longer  exposure,  or  a  more  powerful 
light,  than  a  negative  which  is  exposed  correctly. 
This  situation  may  be  met  either  by  slowing 
down  the  process  of  printing,  or  by  bringing  the 
light  nearer  to  the  film.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
a  negative  is  under-exposed  it  had  better  be 
destroyed  at  once,  as  it  is  worse  than  useless. 
An  over-exposed  negative  will  yield  a  passable 
print,  possibly  somewhat  harsh,  but  nothing  can 

p.c.  G 


82     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

be  done  with  a  negative  which  is  deficient  in 
detail.  The  only  exception  that  may  be  made  to 
this  drastic  policy  is  the  topical  film,  which  may 
have  been  taken  under  adverse  conditions,  during 
a  fog,  or  in  heavy  rain,  or  on  a  dull  day,  or  at  a 
late  hour  when  the  light  was  bad.  In  the  topical 
film  it  is  more  the  interest  of  the  event  than  the 
quality  of  the  film  that  is  important. 

For  absolute  simplicity  it  would  be  difficult  to 
excel  the  system  adopted  in  the  Jury  Duplex 
camera.  In  this  case  one  obtains  both  camera 
and  printing  apparatus — without  the  lens — for 
the  modest  outlay  of  £8  ($40).  There  is  a  small 
bracket  mounted  upon  the  outer  top  face,  and  near 
the  front  edge,  of  the  case.  This  bracket  carries 
the  spool  on  which  the  negative  film  is  coiled. 
This  is  slipped  on  the  bobbin  and  locked  in 
position  by  means  of  a  small  lever.  The  film  is 
carried  from  this  spool  between  two  small  guide 
pressure  rollers  and  fed  into  the  camera  through 
a  slot  faced  with  velvet,  like  that  provided  in  the 
dark  boxes.  The  film  is  pulled  down  a  sufficient 
distance  to  enter  the  gate  so  as  to  secure  engage- 
ment by  the  claws  of  the  camera  mechanism.  In 
threading  the  film  care  must  be  used  to  bring  the 
emulsion  side  facing  the  dark  boxes  and  the 
glossy  side  facing  the  lens. 

The  positive  film  is  inserted  in  the  unexposed 
film-box  of  the  camera  and  is  threaded  up  as  if 


PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE  83 

for  taking  photographs.  As  the  emulsion  side 
is  uppermost,  when  the  unexposed  film  meets 
the  negative  in  the  gate,  the  two  films  are  brought 
together  with  their  emulsion  sides  in  contact  As 
one  film  is  laid  squarely  over  the  other,  and  with 
the  perforations  in  line,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
claws  engage  with  both,  so  that  the  two  films 
are  jerked  together  intermittently  through  the 
gate. 

Emerging  from  the  gate  the  two  films  part 
company.  The  exposed  positive  ribbon  passes 
into  the  exposed  dark  box,  while  the  negative 
film  passes  through  another  velvet-lined  slot 
in  the  bottom  of  the  camera,  and  then  is  wound 
up  on  another  spool. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  case  printing  is 
carried  out  in  a  manner  similar  to  photographing. 
The  film  is  run  through  the  camera  in  the 
ordinary  way  by  turning  the  handle,  and  the 
number  of  exposures  per  second  can  be  varied 
within  wide  limits  to  suit  the  density  of  the  film. 
The  camera  is  supplied  with  a  second  spindle  and 
gearing  upon  which  the  handle  may  be  slipped. 
The  ratio  of  this  gearing  is  one  exposure  per 
revolution,  or  as  it  is  termed  "one  turn  per 
picture." 

Owing  to  the  positive  film  being  contained 
within  the  camera,  and  therefore  in  a  light-tight 
space,  the  electric  light  or  other  illuminant  may 

G  2 


84     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

be  mounted  upon  the  bench  within  the  dark  room, 
so  that  the  operator  can  work  in  a  lighted 
apartment.  In  this  arrangement,  however,  the 
camera  should  be  clamped  firmly  to  a  rigid 
foundation,  so  that  it  may  not  move  during 
exposure.  This  also  ensures  that  the  light  should 
remain  at  a  constant  distance  from  the  machine. 

This  camera  can  be  adjusted  easily  and  cheaply 
for  the  purpose  of  daylight  printing.  All  that  is 
required  is  a  square  funnel,  about  two  feet  in 
length,  made  of  wood  and  so  designed  that  the 
smaller  open  end  fits  into  the  front  recess  of  the 
camera  after  the  shutter  panel  is  removed  or 
opened.  This  funnel  should  be  made  after  the 
manner  of  a  Kodak  enlarger,  and  blackened  on 
the  inside,  with  a  dull  medium,  so  that  no 
reflections  of  light  are  set  up.  When  this  funnel 
is  attached  it  is  only  necessary  to  stand  the 
camera  on  its  rear  face  so  that  the  opening  of  the 
funnel  points  directly  to  the  clear  sky  overhead, 
not  towards  the  sun,  and  to  turn  the  handle  upon 
the  one  turn  one  picture  gear.  The  printing 
speed  will  vary  with  the  intensity  of  the  light  and 
the  density  of  the  film.  Obviously  the  camera 
can  be  run  more  rapidly  on  a  bright  summer 
than  on  a  dull  winter  day.  In  the  first  case  it  is 
safe  to  turn  the  handle  as  fast  as  possible,  but  in 
the  second  the  speed  would  need  to  be  about  one 
picture,  or  handle  turn,  per  second. 


J 


THE  WILLIAMSON  PRINTER. 
(For  explanation  see  p.  85.) 


PRINTING  THE   POSITIVE  85 

One  advantage  of  this  system  of  printing  is 
that  the  picture  is  printed  with  the  camera  with 
which  the  negative  was  obtained,  and  so  first- 
class  results  are  inevitable.  The  registration  is 
assured  as  well  as  the  alignment.  In  threading 
up  the  camera  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  sure 
that  the  image  on  the  negative  comes  squarely 
and  truly  before  the  window  in  the  gate.  Once 
this  is  so,  every  successive  picture  must  be  in 
perfect  registration  and  alignment.  There  could 
be  no  method  of  printing  more  suitable  for  those 
who  are  travelling,  or  engaged  on  topical  work, 
often  under  trying  conditions,  for  the  conversion 
from  photographing  to  printing,  and  vice  versa, 
may  be  accomplished  in  an  instant.  Some  of  the 
more  expensive  cameras  costing  from  £20  ($100) 
upwards  are  now  fitted  with  a  printing  attach- 
ment, the  printing  accessory  being  detached  when 
the  instrument  is  being  used  for  photographing 
purposes.  These  cameras  follow  where  the  Jury 
Duplex  led  the  way. 

The  Williamson  printer  works  upon  a  different 
principle,  being  a  distinct  and  separate  machine. 
Nevertheless  it  is  an'  eminently  practical  ap- 
pliance, and  is  as  well  adapted  to  the  factory  as 
to  the  amateur's  dark  room.  It  comprises  a  base 
board  on  which  the  whole  of  the  mechanism  is 
mounted,  together  with  the  stand  for  the  light. 
(See  illustration  facing  page  84.) 


86     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

In  this  installation  there  must  either  be  a  dark 
box  to  contain  the  light,  against  the  face  of  which 
the  base  board  of  the  printing  mechanism  is 
screwed,  or  else  an  aperture  must  be  provided 
in  the  wall  of  the  dark  room  and  the  light  be 
placed  on  a  shelf  outside.  The  handy  man,  how- 
ever, will  be  able  to  devise  a  light-tight  box, 
either  for  the  electric  light  or  gas.  In  the  latter 
case  it  must  be  fitted  with  a  chimney  with  baffle 
plates  absolutely  light-tight,  to  carry  off  the 
products  of  combustion.  The  light-tight  box 
should  be  lined  either  with  absolutely  safe 
ruby  fabric,  or  with  orange  and  ruby  fabrics 
superimposed.  If  wood  is  used,  the  light-box 
is  apt  to  split  under  the  influence  of  the  heat 
within. 

The  Williamson  printer  is  of  the  simplest 
design  conceivable.  There  is  an  upper  spindle  A 
(see  illustration  facing  p.  84)  on  which  the  spool 
containing  the  negative  is  carried.  Immediately 
below  is  another  spindle  carrying  the  spool  B  on 
which  is  slipped  the  coil  of  unexposed  film.  The 
negative  film,  emulsion  side  outermost,  as  it  winds 
off  the  spool  A  is  passed  behind  the  guide  roller  C 
and  then  picks  up  the  unexposed  film  of  spool  B. 
The  emulsion  side  of  the  unexposed  film  comes 
into  contact  with  the  emulsion  side  of  the  negative 
film.  Passing  over  another  guide  roller  D  the 
films  pass  together  between  the  two  rollers  E  to 


PRINTING  THE   POSITIVE  87 

enter  the  gate  F.  The  latter  is  mounted  upon  the 
rear  face  of  a  small  chamber,  the  aperture  of 
which  is  of  the  size  of  the  cinematograph  film 
image.  This  aperture  is  provided  on  the  inside 
with  a  small  hinged  shutter.  By  opening  this 
one  can  see  that  the  negative  image  occupies  the 
full  space  of  the  window,  or  make  any  other 
observations.  The  film  is  moved  intermittently 
through  the  printing  gate  F  by  the  sprocket 
wheel  G,  the  teeth  of  which  engage  with  the 
perforations  in  the  films.  The  engagement  of  the 
films  with  this  sprocket  is  ensured  by  the  two 
pressure  rollers  H.  The  sprocket  G  is  mounted 
upon  and  revolved  by  the  handwheel  I — a  motor 
drive  can  be  incorporated  if  desired — and  after 
being  moved  beyond  this  sprocket  wheel,  the  two 
films  divide,  the  positive  film  being  wound  upon 
a  spool  or  into  its  dark  box,  while  the  negative  is 
wound  upon  another  spool.  The  movement  of 
the  light  K,  either  towards  or  from  the  exposure 
window  F,  is  effected  by  means  of  the  handle  J, 
which  has  ten  stops  corresponding  to  as  many 
different  distances.  The  lamp  moves  to  and  fro 
along  the  support  L. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Williamson  is  a  simple, 
straightforward  machine.  It  is  soundly  con- 
structed and  works  admirably.  Its  achievements 
are  in  every  way  equal  to  those  of  the  com- 
plicated and  more  expensive  model  manufactured 


88     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

by  the  same  firm  for  professional  use.1  So  long 
as  the  machine  works  reliably,  and  has  perfect 
registration  and  alignment,  nothing  more  is 
required.  Extra  refinements,  and  little  details, 
while  of  service  to  the  expert,  only  serve  to 
harass  the  amateur. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  most  important  duties 
of  a  printing  machine  are  to  feed  the  two  films 
evenly  and  easily  through  the  gate,  and  to  hold 
them  flatly  and  tightly  together,  so  as  to  secure 
perfect  contact  while  they  are  before  the  exposure 
window.  By  this  instrument  both  these  duties 
are  perfectly  performed.  The  sprocket  G  con- 
tinuously revolves  under  the  steady  turning 
movement  of  the  handle,  and  the  two  films  are 
held  rigidly,  tightly  and  steadily  together  by  the 
pressure  gate  F. 

Of  course,  in  printing  with  this  machine,  the 
operator  works  in  total  darkness,  owing  to  the 
coil  of  positive  film  being  fully  exposed.  This 
is  no  handicap  however,  because  the  dark-room 
ruby  lamp  supplies  sufficient  light  to  enable 
the  necessary  operations  to  be  performed.  But 
it  is  not  wise  to  use  too  powerful  a  ruby  light, 
or  the  unexposed  positive  film  will  be  fogged. 

Turning  the  driving  handle  is  no  more  difficult 
than  turning  that  of  the  camera  mechanism. 

1  "  Moving  Pictures  :  How  they  are  Made  and  Worked," 
Chapter  VIII.,  page  82. 


PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE  89 

The  gearing  is  so  designed  that  six  exposures 
are  made  per  revolution,  representing  twelve 
pictures  per  second,  when  revolved  at  the  normal 
speed.  With  a  negative  of  average  density 
this  speed  is  sufficient.  But  the  period  of 
exposure  can  be  varied  according  to  the  speed 
at  which  the  handle  is  turned.  The  turns  of 
the  handle  should  be  steady  and  regular,  or  the 
pictures  will  be  of  uneven  density  owing  to  the 
variations  in  exposure. 

The  electric  light  is  easily  moved  by  means 
of  the  handle  while  the  ten  stops  give  it  great 
flexibility.  In  order  to  maintain  an  exposure 
of  twelve  pictures  per  second  with  an  average 
negative,  a  lamp  of  50  candle  power  should  be 
used.  To  ensure  the  best  results  it  should  be 
of  the  class  known  as  "  focus  lamp."  This  type 
of  lamp  has  a  special  filament,  with  a  smaller 
coil  than  is  found  in  the  ordinary  incandescent 
electric  lamp.  A  gas  burner  with  incandescent 
mantle  may  be  used  if  electricity  is  not  available, 
though  the  operator  will  have  to  ascertain  the 
relative  value  of  the  luminous  intensity  of  the 
light  as  compared  with  the  50  candle  power 
electric  light,  and  will  be  wise  if  he  makes  one 
or  two  trial  exposures  with  short  lengths  of 
film  before  essaying  the  printing  of  a  complete 
film. 

While  it  is  possible   during  printing  to  vary 


90     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

the  distance  of  the  light  from  the  exposure 
window,  the  light  being  manipulated  with  the 
left  hand,  while  the  handle  is  turned  with  the 
right,  there  is  slight  necessity  for  such  a  pro- 
cedure. The  negative  film  should  be  examined  to 
ascertain  how  the  density  varies  along  its  length, 
and  then  each  portion  of  film  that  shows  tolerable 
regularity  of  density  should  be  printed  off  at 
the  same  speed.  In  this  way  variations  of 
distance  need  occur  only  with  distinct  lengths 
of  film.  This  is  a  far  safer  method,  especially 
for  the  beginner,  than  the  movement  of  the  light 
to  and  fro  while  the  films  are  running  through 
the  gate,  though  of  course  with  practice  it 
becomes  possible  to  do  the  two  things  satis- 
factorily at  once.  Many  amateur  cinemato- 
graphers  make  the  mistake  of  attempting  artifices 
which  they  have  seen  practised  by  some  expe- 
rienced professional  worker,  and  the  result  is 
failure.  What  is  easy  and  simple  to  the  expert 
is  often  beyond  the  powers  of  the  beginner. 
Success  in  printing  can  only  be  achieved  by 
honest  and  diligent  work,  but  patience  is  sure 
of  its  reward.  At  first  there  may  be  a  tendency 
to  make  the  positives  somewhat  too  dense,  and 
then,  when  the  evils  of  this  defect  are  appreciated, 
to  fly  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Of  the  two 
blemishes  probably  the  latter  is  the  worse,  as 
it  produces  a  washed-out  effect  upon  the  screen. 


PRINTING  THE   POSITIVE  91 

The  positive  is  developed  in  exactly  the  same 
way  as  the  negative,  and  with  the  same  solutions. 
When  dry  the  positive,  which  may  have  been 
printed  in  short  distinct  lengths,  should  be 
connected  up  with  the  aid  of  cement  as  described 
in  a  previous  chapter.  If  titles  have  to  be  intro- 
duced they  may  be  inserted  wherever  required, 
merely  by  severing  the  film  at  that  point,  and 
introducing  the  length  carrying  the  explanation. 

The  preparation  of  the  titles  is  a  simple 
matter.  If  printed  type  is  used,  the  letters  cut 
out  of  white  paper  or  cardboard  are  laid  flat 
upon  a  level  surface  with  a  black  background. 
The  camera  is  then  placed  overhead  with  the 
lens  pointing  downwards  upon  the  centre  of  the 
title  space.  The  latter,  brilliantly  illuminated, 
is  then  photographed  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  for  a  period  of  ten  seconds 
or  more  according  to  requirements. 

In  many  instances,  especially  in  non-topical 
work,  the  operator  need  not  necessarily  incur 
the  expense  and  trouble  of  printing  a  positive 
film.  Many  of  the  purchasers  of  educational  and 
popularly  scientific  films  will  give  their  decision 
after  having  seen  the  negative  passed  through 
the  projector  in  the  manner  of  a  positive  film. 
So  long  as  great  care  is  used,  this  can  be  done 
without  ill  effects,  but  of  course  the  slightest 
scratch  or  abrasion  that  the  negative  may  receive 


92     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

in  the  process  will  be  reproduced  with  accen- 
tuated effect  upon  the  positive  film.  Even  with 
some  of  the  topical  films  a  positive  is  not 
necessary.  To  submit  the  negative  to  the  local 
theatre  or  prospective  purchaser  is  often  a  good 
way  of  saving  time  and  being  first  in  the  field. 
Many  theatres  now  are  being  equipped  with 
dark  rooms  and  printing  machines.  A  glance 
at  the  negative  will  enable  the  manager  to 
decide  whether  the  film  is  serviceable  or  other- 
wise, and  if  a  purchase  is  made,  the  deletion  of 
the  uninteresting  parts  can  be  made  before 
printing.  Incidentally,  one  great  advantage  of 
this  is  that  the  film  is  submitted  for  consideration 
about  three  or  four  hours  earlier  than  would  be 
the  case  if  the  independent  worker  struck  off  his 
own  positive,  and  in  these  days  of  high  pressure 
such  a  saving  is  important.  It  may  often  be  the 
means  of  forestalling  a  competitor.  Even  if  it 
is  intended  to  supply  prints  to  two  or  three 
different  picture  palaces  the  negative  offers  a 
means  of  transacting  business,  because  the 
respective  establishments  can  give  their  orders, 
make  their  arrangements  concerning  announce- 
ments, and  be  able  to  judge  fairly  accurately  the 
hour  at  which  the  film  will  be  available  for 
projection.  In  one  instance  an  independent 
topical  worker  who  had  a  first-class  negative 
of  a  popular  subject  drove  round  from  theatre 


PRINTING  THE  POSITIVE  93 

to  theatre  with  his  negative  and  secured  an  order 
for  about  half-a-dozen  copies.  He  then  handed 
over  the  work  of  printing  to  a  professional  firm. 
Four  hours  later  he  delivered  the  positives  to 
the  respective  theatres,  and  ultimately  he  sold 
the  negative  outright  to  the  firm  who  completed 
his  printing  contracts  for  the  supply  of  other 
markets  at  their  disposal.  In  another  instance 
an  enterprising  amateur  who  had  an  excellent 
negative  handed  it  over  to  a  topical-film  firm 
to  print  and  circulate,  the  firm  to  take  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  receipts  and  to  bear  the  expense  of 
printing  and  other  details. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ABERRATIONS   OF   ANIMATED    PHOTOGRAPHY 

IT  has  been  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter 
that  cinematography  is  nothing  more  or  less  than 
an  optical  illusion.  Further  proof  of  this  asser- 
tion exists  in  plenty.  When  following  the  pro- 
jection of  a  picture  upon  the  screen,  one  is  often 
perplexed  by  a  curious  effect,  or  a  movement 
which  appears  to  be  in  opposition  to  all  the 
known  laws  of  motion.  This  happens  not  only 
in  trick  work  where  such  odd  and  startling  effects 
are  introduced  purposely,  but  in  straightforward 
every-day  topical  subjects. 

For  instance,  it  must  have  been  noticed  that 
when  a  ship  or  railway  train  is  in  rapid  move- 
ment, and  is  photographed  from  a  fixed  stationary 
point,  such  as  the  quay  or  platform,  the  moving 
object  appears  to  stand  out  in  bold  relief  against 
the  background.  One  gathers  a  very  comprehen- 
sive idea  of  its  length,  width,  height,  and  the 
comparative  size  of  all  its  integral  parts,  such  as 
the  guns  on  the  ship's  deck  or  the  locomotive's 
cylinders.  It  is  a  curious  stereoscopic  effect,  but 
at  the  same  time  is  not  truly  so,  because  it  is 
only  the  moving  object  which  appears  to  possess 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    95 

solidity.  The  foreground  and  background  remain 
as  plane  surfaces  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
an  idea  of  distance.  This  effect  arises  from  the 
fact  that  what  might  be  described  as  the  central 
part  of  the  picture  is  moving  or  continually 
changing,  thereby  compelling  all  the  objects 
attached  to  its  length  and  breadth  to  assume 
relief  in  regard  to  the  other  parts  of  the  picture. 

But  if  the  camera  with  which  the  pictures  are 
taken  is  placed  upon  the  moving  object  itself, 
then  the  whole  of  the  resulting  picture  stands 
out  in  a  truly  stereoscopic  manner.  One  gathers 
an  impression  of  distance  between  the  various 
objects  on  the  screen.  Everything  is  shown 
with  form  and  solidity  in  precisely  the  same  way 
as  if  one  were  looking  through  a  hand  stereoscope 
upon  a  photograph  taken  stereoscopically.  This 
effect  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  the  planes  are 
moving  continually. 

But  probably  the  most  bewildering  puzzle  is 
the  moving  wheel.  A  carriage  or  waggon  is 
seen  advancing  across  the  screen  from  left  to 
right,  but  the  spokes  of  the  wheels,  on  the  other 
hand,  seem  to  be  moving  in  the  opposite  direction. 
At  other  times  the  spokes  move  in  successive 
spasmodic  jumps,  or  appear  to  be  stationary,  so 
that  a  curious  skidding  effect  is  produced,  not- 
withstanding that  the  rim  itself  is  seen  to  be 
revolving  normally. 


96     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

There  have  been  many  explanations  of  this 
extraordinary  effect,  and  in  one  instance  the 
higher  mathematics  were  pressed  into  service 
without  any  great  success.  The  most  convincing 
explanation  known  to  the  writer  is  that  given 
him  by  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull,  the  assistant- 
director  of  the  Marey  Institute,  where  phenomena 
of  this  class  are  minutely  investigated,  because 
they  accord  with  the  work  of  that  unique  and 
admirable  institution.  By  Monsieur  Bull  the 
illusion  was  explained  very  easily,  but,  curiously 
enough,  in  carrying  out  the  experiments  to  this 
end,  he  encountered  another  illusion  equally 
strange. 

To  reduce  the  explanation  to  its  simplest  form 
we  will  suppose  that  a  wheel  has  four  spokes 
spaced  equidistantly,  that  is,  90  degrees  apart, 
and  that  the  wheel  is  moving  from  right  to  left. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  such  an  example  is  not  the 
best  for  the  purpose,  but  it  shall  be  taken  merely 
because  it  is  the  simplest  to  understand.  An 
exposure  is  made,  the  wheel  being  photographed 
in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  lens  is 
eclipsed  by  the  shutter,  and  the  film  is  jerked 
downwards  into  position  in  the  gate  so  as  to 
bring  a  fresh  unexposed  surface  before  the  lens. 
While  this  operation  is  taking  place,  we  will 
suppose  that  the  wheel,  continuing  its  forward 
movement,  completes  one  quarter  of  a  revolution. 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    97 

Consequently  when  the  second  exposure  is  made 
spoke  i  has  moved  90  degrees,  which  is  the 
angle  between  each  spoke.  Accordingly  it  now 
occupies  exactly  the  same  position  as  that  of 
spoke  2  at  the  time  of  the  first  exposure.  Spoke  2 
has  moved  to  the  position  formerly  occupied  by 


FIG.  3.— The  first  picture  of  the  four-spoke  wbeeL 

spoke  3  Spoke  3  has  travelled  sufficiently  to 
to  take  the  place  of  spoke  4,  while  4  has  gone 
to  that  of  i  (Fig.  4).  If  four  exposures  are 
made,  and  the  spokes  move  90  degrees  each  time 
the  lens  is  closed,  when  the  four  pictures  are 
thrown  successively  upon  the  screen  they  will  look 
exactly  alike.  The  spokes  will  appear  to  be  quite 
p.c.  H 


98      PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

stationary,  although  the  rim  of  the  wheel  will 
have  moved  a  distance  equal  to  its  circumference 
across  the  screen.  Consequently,  if  a  dozen,  a 
hundred,  or  a  thousand  exposures  are  made 
under  these  conditions,  the  spokes  moving  90 


FIG.  4. — During  the  eclipse  of  the  lens  the  spokes  have  moved 
a  distance  equal  to  the  angle  between  them,  causing  the 
spokes  apparently  to  stand  still  while  the  wheel  is  moving. 

degrees  between  each  exposure,  a  quaint  skid- 
ding effect  will  be  produced.  All  the  spokes 
being  alike  the  eye  is  unable  to  detect  that  any 
displacement  has  taken  place  between  one  ex- 
posure and  another.  This  impression  of  the 
spokes  standing  still  while  the  wheel  is  moving, 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    99 

must  arise  in  every  case  in  which  the  wheel 
moves  sufficiently  to  cause  the  spokes  to  cover  a 
distance  equal  to  the  angle  between  them  during 
the  interval  while  the  lens  is  eclipsed  by  the 


FIG.  5. — During  the  eclipse  of  the  lens  the  spokes  move  less 
than  the  angle  (AB)  between  them,  producing  apparent 
backward  motion  of  the  spokes  while  the  wheel  is  running 
forwards. 

shutter.    It  will  happen  equally  whether  the  wheel 
has  four,  sixteen,  or  more  spokes. 

Now  we  will  suppose  that  the  revolving  speed 
of  the  wheel  is  retarded,  causing  less  than  a 
quarter  of  a  revolution  to  be  completed  between 
each  exposure.  The  spokes,  let  us  say,  move 
through  an  angle  of  85  degrees  instead  of  90 

H  2 


102    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

spokes  and  rim  will  be  seen  to  be  moving 
harmoniously  in  the  forward  and  correct 
direction.  Accordingly  natural  movement  of  the 


FIG.  7. — When  the  spokes  move  slightly  more  (AC)  or  slightly 
less  (AD)  than  half  the  angle  (AB)  between  them,  during 
the  eclipse  of  the  lens,  the  curious  illusion  of  seeing  twice 
the  number  of  spokes  in  the  wheel  is  produced. 

wheel  only  can  be  shown  when  the  spokes  of  the 
wheel,  irrespective  of  their  number,  move  a 
distance  equal  to  more  than  the  angle  between 
them. 

In    the    course    of   elucidating    this    problem 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY     103 

Monsieur  Bull  discovered  another  curious  optical 
illusion  produced  by  the  moving  wheel.  Still 
taking  the  four-spoke  wheel  as  an  illustration,  we 
will  suppose  that  between  each  exposure  the 
spokes  are  displaced  a  little  more  or  a  little  less 
than  half  the  angle  between  them.  As  the 
spokes  are  set  90  degrees  apart,  the  half-way 
point  will  be  45  degrees.  When  a  succession 
of  such  pictures  is  thrown  upon  the  screen,  it  is 
not  four  spokes  which  are  seen,  but  eight  (Fig.  7). 
Monsieur  Bull  is  engaged  upon  a  series  of  experi- 
ments to  ascertain  why  this  peculiar  optical  illu- 
sion should  prevail,  and  the  explanation  will 
prove  interesting. 

Another  interesting  and  more  conclusive 
illustration  of  the  optically  illusory  properties 
of  the  cinematograph  was  demonstrated  to  me 
by  Monsieur  Bull.  In  order  to  be  absolutely 
positive  that  an  apparatus  which  he  uses  in 
certain  cinematographic  investigations  should 
maintain  the  speed  he  desires,  he  has  contrived 
a  tuning-fork  control  for  his  electric  motor.  This 
tuning-fork  resembles  a  large  trembler  blade, 
such  as  is  used  in  the  high-tension  accumulator 
and  coil  ignition  system  upon  motor  cars.  This 
particular  instrument  is  timed  to  make,  say,  40 
vibrations  per  second,  and  at  this  speed,  of 
course,  it  emits  a  distinctive  musical  note.  This 
tuning-fork  controls  the  electric  motor  driving 


102    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

spokes  and  rim  will  be  seen  to  be  moving 
harmoniously  in  the  forward  and  correct 
direction.  Accordingly  natural  movement  of  the 


FIG.  7. — When  the  spokes  move  slightly  more  (AC)  or  slightly 
less  (AD)  than  half  the  angle  (AB)  between  them,  during 
the  eclipse  of  the  lens,  the  curious  illusion  of  seeing  twice 
the  number  of  spokes  in  the  wheel  is  produced. 

wheel  only  can  be  shown  when  the  spokes  of  the 
wheel,  irrespective  of  their  number,  move  a 
distance  equal  to  more  than  the  angle  between 
them. 

In    the    course    of   elucidating    this    problem 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    103 

Monsieur  Bull  discovered  another  curious  optical 
illusion  produced  by  the  moving  wheel.  Still 
taking  the  four-spoke  wheel  as  an  illustration,  we 
will  suppose  that  between  each  exposure  the 
spokes  are  displaced  a  little  more  or  a  little  less 
than  half  the  angle  between  them.  As  the 
spokes  are  set  90  degrees  apart,  the  half-way 
point  will  be  45  degrees.  When  a  succession 
of  such  pictures  is  thrown  upon  the  screen,  it  is 
not  four  spokes  which  are  seen,  but  eight  (Fig.  7). 
Monsieur  Bull  is  engaged  upon  a  series  of  experi- 
ments to  ascertain  why  this  peculiar  optical  illu- 
sion should  prevail,  and  the  explanation  will 
prove  interesting. 

Another  interesting  and  more  conclusive 
illustration  of  the  optically  illusory  properties 
of  the  cinematograph  was  demonstrated  to  me 
by  Monsieur  Bull.  In  order  to  be  absolutely 
positive  that  an  apparatus  which  he  uses  in 
certain  cinematographic  investigations  should 
maintain  the  speed  he  desires,  he  has  contrived 
a  tuning-fork  control  for  his  electric  motor.  This 
tuning-fork  resembles  a  large  trembler  blade, 
such  as  is  used  in  the  high-tension  accumulator 
and  coil  ignition  system  upon  motor  cars.  This 
particular  instrument  is  timed  to  make,  say,  40 
vibrations  per  second,  and  at  this  speed,  of 
course,  it  emits  a  distinctive  musical  note.  This 
tuning-fork  controls  the  electric  motor  driving 


104    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

the  apparatus.  For  the  purpose  of  illustration 
we  will  suppose  it  to  be  necessary  that  the  speed 
of  the  motor  shall  not  exceed  40  revolutions  per 
second.  In  the  earliest  experiments  he  depended 
upon  his  ear  to  detect  whether  the  motor  and 
tuning-fork  were  in  synchrony.  He  varied  the 
speed  of  the  motor  until  its  hum  was  dead  in  tune 
with  that  of  the  tuning-fork. 

But,  as  he  thought  that  his  ear  might  not  be 
infallible,  he  devised  an  ingenious  synchronising 
apparatus  based  upon  the  cinematographic 
principle.  A  small  disk  of  cardboard  provided 
with  two  holes  near  its  edge,  at  opposite  points 
of  the  circumference,  is  mounted  upon  the  spindle 
of  the  tiny  motor.  Behind  this  disk  is  placed 
a  small  adjustable  mirror.  A  pencil  of  electric 
light  is  projected  horizontally  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  strikes  the  cardboard  disk  at  right  angles, 
and,  when  a  hole  on  the  disk  is  brought  into 
line  with  it,  it  passes  through  and  falls  upon  the 
mirror.  The  mirror  is  then  set  so  as  to  reflect 
and  focus  the  pencil  of  light  in  a  small  circle  upon 
the  free  vibrating  extremity  of  the  tuning-fork. 
Naturally  a  strong  shadow  is  thrown  by  the 
latter  upon  the  white  wall  behind. 

In  the  daylight  the  vibration  of  this  fork  is 
distinctly  visible,  and  although  it  is  slight  and 
rapid  it  can  be  followed  without  any  effort.  But 
when  the  room  is  darkened,  the  ray  of  light  is 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    105 

thrown  upon  the  tuning-fork  from  the  mirror. 
When  the  motor  bearing  the  cardboard  disk  is 
set  in  motion  a  very  curious  effect  is  produced. 
The  pencil  of  light  reflected  against  the  tuning- 
fork  becomes  interrupted  twice  in  every  revo- 
lution of  the  disk,  that  is  80  times  per  second,  so 
that,  looking  at  the  background  upon  which  the 
tuning-fork  is  silhouetted,  the  effect  produced  is 
precisely  similar  to  that  observable  upon  the 
cinematograph  screen,  where  the  passage  of  the 
light  from  the  lantern  is  interrupted  by  the  rotary 
action  of  the  shutter.  If  the  revolving  speed  of 
the  motor,  that  is  the  number  of  revolutions  per 
second,  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  vibrations 
per  second  of  the  tuning-fork,  viz.  40,  the  end  of 
the  fork,  as  one  looks  at  the  illuminated  circle  on 
the  wall  against  which  the  shadow  is  thrown, 
appears  to  be  at  rest  One  only  needs  to  touch 
the  end  of  the  fork,  however,  to  be  certain  that  it 
is  vibrating. 

Now  if  the  motor  be  thrown  out  of  synchrony 
with  the  tuning-fork,  even  if  it  makes  only  39  or 
41  instead  of  40  revolutions  per  second,  the 
disturbance  is  shown  instantly,  because  looking 
at  the  illuminated  tuning-fork  one  observes  it 
jumping  spasmodically.  This  movement  becomes 
more  pronounced  as  the  harmony  between  the 
revolutions  of  the  motor  and  the  fork  is  disturbed, 
the  jumps  of  the  blade  at  times  being  apparently 


106    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

of  a  very  severe  character.  Moreover,  curiously 
enough,  under  the  illumination  of  the  ray  of  light 
the  erratic  movements  of  the  blade  appear  to  be 
three  or  four  times  more  severe  than  they  really 
are.  But  as  the  motor  revolutions  and  the  tuning- 
fork  vibrations  are  brought  into  synchrony,  the 
movements  grow  quieter,  until  at  last  the  tuning- 
fork  once  more  appears  to  be  quiescent. 

The  explanation  of  this  quasi-cinematographic 
illusion,  which  is  as  interesting  and  as  puzzling 
as  that  of  the  wheel,  is  very  simple,  for  it  is  based 
indeed  upon  the  same  phenomena.  As  the  card- 
board disk  is  provided  with  two  small  holes  spaced 
1 80  degrees  apart,  the  passage  of  the  ray  of  light 
is  intercepted  by  the  opaque  section  of  the  disk 
80  times  per  second  when  the  motor  revolutions 
and  the  tuning-fork  vibrations  are  in  absolute 
synchrony.  The  result  is  that  at  this  speed  the 
light  strikes  the  tuning-fork  each  time  at  the 
instant  it  is  at  the  half-way  point  in  its  oscillating 
travel.  One  hole  in  the  disk  conies  before  the 
light  when  the  blade  has  completed  half  its  move- 
ment in  one  direction,  while  the  second  hole 
comes  into  line  with  the  light  when  the  blade  is 
at  the  same  point  on  its  return  journey.  Con- 
sequently the  light  falls  upon  the  blade  at  the 
same  spot  every  time,  causing  the  eye  to  imagine 
that  it  sees  the  blade  always  in  the  one  position 
as  if  under  a  steady  ray  of  continuous  light. 


ABERRATIONS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY    107 

Hence  comes  its  apparent  quiescence.  But 
directly  the  speed  of  the  motor  is  altered  in  rela- 
tion to  the  vibration  of  the  tuning-fork,  the  rays 
of  light  catch  the  blade  at  varying  points  in  its 
travel,  and  these  changes,  coming  in  quick  succes- 
sion, convey  the  visual  idea  of  movement.  Accele- 
ration of  the  motor  so  that  its  revolving  speed  per 
second  exceeds  the  number  of  the  tuning-fork 
vibrations,  causes  the  perceptible  movements  to 
be  made  more  quickly,  while  on  the  other  hand 
deceleration  slows  them  down.  In  reality  the 
eye  imagines  that  it  sees  more  than  what  actually 
takes  place ;  it  imagines  that  the  blade  of  the  fork 
is  kicking  spasmodically  and  viciously,  whereas 
in  fact  the  extent  of  the  movement  to  and  fro  is 
constant  and  never  changes. 

While  the  experiment  is  peculiarly  fascinating, 
its  application  is  extremely  useful  to  the  worker. 
It  offers  a  means  of  being  absolutely  certain 
about  the  speed  at  which  the  instrument  utilised 
in  a  particular  investigation  is  running,  so  that 
the  resulting  calculations  may  be  completed 
without  the  slightest  error. 


CHAPTER   IX 

SLOWING   DOWN   RAPID   MOVEMENTS 

DURING  the  past  few  years  much  effort  has 
been  spent  upon  adapting  the  cinematograph 
so  that  it  will  record  exceedingly  rapid  move- 
ments, such  as  a  bullet  in  flight.  Some  popular 
films  of  this  character  have  been  placed  on  the 
market,  and,  in  order  to  attract  the  public,  have 
been  colloquially  described  as  "  quicker-than- 
thought  "  or  "  quicker-than-the-eye  "  movements. 
Strictly  speaking  both  the  latter  designations 
are  erroneous,  especially  in  regard  to  the  eye, 
inasmuch  as  if  a  bullet  fired  from  a  rifle  were 
brilliant  white  the  eye  would  be  able  to  follow 
its  flight  with  ease,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  it  may  issue  from  the  muzzle  with  a 
travelling  speed  of  2,000  feet  or  more  per 
second. 

So  far  as  the  moving-picture  camera  is  con- 
cerned it  is  obvious  that  the  ordinary  machine 
could  not  be  operated  with  sufficient  speed  to 
film  a  bullet  in  flight,  or  even  to  catch  the  flap 
of  the  wings  of  a  small  insect,  such  as  a  house-fly 
or  bee.  It  would  be  impossible  to  jerk  the 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  109 

film  through  the  gate  with  sufficient  speed  to 
take  perhaps  five  thousand  pictures  per  second — 
the  mechanism,  and  more  particularly  the  film, 
would  break  down  before  a  fiftieth  of  the  number 
of  pictures  were  taken  in  the  space  of  one  second. 
Accordingly,  great  ingenuity  has  been  dis- 
played by  cinematograph  investigators  in  the 
evolution  of  a  means  of  snapping  such  extremely 
rapid  movements  at  sufficient  speed  to  make 
the  films  interesting  or  scientifically  useful. 
This  particular  branch  of  the  craft  was  developed 
first  by  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull,  of  the  Marey 
Institute,  who  designed  a  novel  and  ingenious 
camera  capable  of  taking  up  to  two  thousand 
pictures  per  second.1  With  this  apparatus  many 
wonderful  films  have  been  obtained,  and  such 
a  fascinating  field  of  study  has  been  revealed 
that  attempts  are  being  made  in  all  directions 
to  secure  "  quicker-than-thought "  films  that 
would  have  been  thought  ten  years  ago  to  be 
photographically  impossible.  Monsieur  Bull  is 
developing  his  idea  in  order  to  be  in  a  position 
to  obtain  longer  records  of  a  subject,  and  also 
to  take  the  photographs  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed. 
Professor  Cranz,  a  German  experimenter,  also 
has  carried  out  some  novel  experiments  on  the 
same  lines,  and  has  designed  a  system  whereby 

1  See  "  Moving  Pictures :  How  they  are  Made  and  Worked," 
Chapter  XXIV.,  page  264. 


no    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

he  is  able  to  take  a  photograph  in  the  ten-millionth 
part  of  a  second. 

This  particular  phase  of  cinematographic 
investigation  is  wonderfully  fascinating,  and 
from  the  private  worker's  point  of  view  it  is 
additionally  attractive  because  it  offers  him  an 
opportunity  to  display  his  ingenuity.  It  is  only 
by  individual  effort  and  the  mutual  communica- 
tion of  ideas  that  perfection  can  be  achieved,  and 
in  this  one  field  there  is  great  scope.  There  are 
many  problems  which  have  to  be  solved,  many  of 
which  are  peculiar  to  this  particular  study.  It 
involves  a  combination  of  the  electrical  and 
cinematographic  expert,  since  dependence  has 
to  be  placed  upon  the  electric  spark  for  illumina- 
tion, and  also  upon  electricity  for  operating  the 
mechanism. 

In  such  work  as  this  the  time  factor  is  a  most 
important  feature.  Obviously,  from  the  scientific 
point  of  view,  it  is  essential  to  have  some  reliable 
means  of  determining  the  fraction  of  a  second 
in  which  each  picture  is  taken  and  also  the 
period  which  elapses  between  the  successive 
pictures.  In  the  system  devised  by  Monsieur 
Lucien  Bull  a  tuning-fork  is  used.  The  vibra- 
tions of  this  fork  per  second  are  known,  and  as 
the  two  ends  of  the  fork  are  reproduced  in  each 
image,  it  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  calculate  the 
time  factor. 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  1 1 1 

Dr.  E.  J.  Marey  insisted  strongly  on  the 
importance  of  this  registration  of  time.  It  is 
obviously  essential  in  many  kinds  of  scientific 
work.  Marey  during  his  life  investigated  some 
very  rapid  natural  movements  such  as  those  of 
a  pigeon's  wings  during  flight  Such  a  film 
would  have  been  useless  from  the  scientific  point 
of  view,  unless  there  were  some  means  of 
showing  in  what  interval  of  time  each  successive 
picture  was  taken,  and  also  the  period  which 
elapsed  between  each  exposure.  Knowledge  of 
these  two  facts  enables  one  to  tell  the  time 
occupied  in  making  a  complete  flap  of  the  wing, 
and  the  physical  changes  which  take  place  in 
the  shape  of  the  wing  to  accommodate  the  bird 
to  different  conditions,  and  it  also  enables  the 
investigator  to  trace  the  motion  photographically 
lost  while  the  lens  is  eclipsed  to  permit  the  film 
to  be  moved  forward 

To  this  end  Marey  devised  an  interesting  type 
of  clock.  It  consisted  of  a  dial  provided  with 
one  large  revolving  hand  which  was  driven  by 
ordinary  clockwork.  The  face  of  the  dial  was 
marked  off  into  twenty  equal  divisions,  each  of 
which  corresponded  to  one-twentieth  part  of  a 
second.  This  "  chronoscope "  as  it  was  called, 
was  placed  near  the  object  under  cinematographic 
study,  so  that  both  the  movement  of  the  clock- 
hand  and  that  of  the  object  were  photographed 


ii2    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

simultaneously.  This  system  of  timing  motions 
it  may  be  pointed  out  has  been  revived  in  a 
similar  form  by  Mr.  Frank  Gilbreth  in  con- 
nection with  "  micro-motion  "  study  described  in 
another  chapter. 

Marey  also  evolved  a  means  of  adapting  the 
camera  so  as  to  enable  him  to  take  the  pictures 
at  a  speed  exceeding  sixteen  per  second.      He 
did  not  change   the  mechanism   of  the  camera 
very  radically,  but  was  able  to  secure  as  many 
as   one   hundred   and   ten   pictures   per    second 
His  arrangement  of  the  camera  was  very  simple, 
as    shown    on    the    plate    opposite.      The    film 
travelled     intermittently,     its    arrest     for    each 
exposure    being    very  abrupt.      In   the  camera 
were  two  cylinders  C  and  C1  between  which  the 
film   passed,   and    these    cylinders    revolved    in 
opposite    directions    and   towards   one  another. 
As  the  two  peripheries   of  the   cylinders   were 
brought  together  the  film  was  gripped  and  was 
moved    forward    by  friction,   somewhat    in    the 
manner  of  the  clutch-action  which  was  adopted 
in   the  very  first  moving-picture  cameras.     But 
each  cylinder  was  provided  with  eight  flattened 
sections,  of  equal  length,  disposed  equidistantly. 
Consequently,  when  two  opposing  flat  surfaces 
came  together  the  grip  on  the  film  was  momen- 
tarily released,  and  the  film  stopped,  though  the 
cylinders  continued  their  rotary  motion.     By  the 


By  courtesy  of  the  M«rey  Institute. 

MAREY'S  APPARATUS    FOR  TAKING   MOVING-PICTURES   OF 
RAPID  MOVEMENTS. 

(For  explanation  see  p.  112.) 


By  courtesy  of  the 


Marey  Institute. 


ClNEMATOGRAPHING    RAPID    MOVEMENTS. 

The  complete  beat  of  a  pigeon's  wing  secured  by  Dr.  Marey  in 
eighteen  pictures,  and  taken,  according  to  the  "  chronoscope  "  in  the 
corner,  in  2:Vths  of  a  second. 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  113 

incorporation  of  gear  trains  the  number  of 
revolutions  could  be  varied  up  to  about  seventeen 
or  eighteen  per  second  In  the  camera,  above 
the  lens  was  a  small  device  whereby  the  sudden 
and  complete  stoppage  of  the  film  was  assured 
during  the  periods  when  it  was  not  gripped  by 
the  cylinders  below.  Another  similar  device  was 
introduced  at  F  above  the  window,  through 
which  the  mechanism  at  the  gate  was  visible, 
and  this  also  pressed  lightly  upon  the  film  to 
counteract  all  the  vibrations  set  up  from  its  quick 
intermittent  movement.  The  unexposed.film  was 
mounted  upon  a  spool  in  the  removable  box  R 
in  the  usual  manner,  but  before  being  fed  into 
the  camera  it  passed  between  two  other  friction 
disks  D  and  K,  and  was  then  fed  through  the 
camera  mechanism  and  out  at  the  bottom  into  a 
second  removable  spool  box  L,  where  it  was 
wound  in  after  exposure.  This  lower  box  also 
contained  two  friction  disks  similar  to  those  in 
the  unexposed  film  box,  and  the  larger  of  these 
cylinders  in  the  lower  box,  like  D  in  the  upper 
or  unexposed  box,  was  driven  by  the  revolving 
handle,  through  belts  and  pulleys. 

It  was  a  very  simple  apparatus.  Although  it 
was  open  to  the  objection  that  the  film  might 
slip  while  photographs  were  being  taken  at  high 
speed,  Marey  proved  strikingly  successful  in  his 
use  of  it,  his  pictures  being  wonderfully  steady, 

p.c.  i 


ii4    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

even  when  taken  at  a  speed  of  one  hundred  and 
forty  per  second.  In  photographing  the  beat  of 
a  pigeon's  wings  he  secured  a  complete  cycle  of 
motion  in  eighteen  pictures,  which,  by  reference 
to  thechronoscope  visible  in  the  same  field,  shows 
that  they  were  recorded  in  three-twentieths  of  a 
second. 

Such  an  adaptation  of  the  camera  could  be 
used  successfully  to-day  for  what  might  be 
described,  somewhat  paradoxically,  as  slow  rapid 
movements.  But  it  would  be  better  to  secure 
a  more  positive  and  simple  means  of  moving  the 
film  forward.  Of  course  the  main  advantage  of 
the  friction  disk  system  is  that  the  film  suffers 
no  damage  as  it  moves.  In  an  ordinary  camera, 
working  on  the  conventional  claw  principle,  there 
would  be  a  tendency  to  tear  the  perforations 
when  the  pictures  exceeded  sixty  or  so  per 
second,  and  it  would  prove  difficult  in  some 
instances  to  ensure  the  absolute  quiescence  and 
steadiness  of  the  film  during  exposure.  With 
the  Geneva  stop  system  of  moving  the  film,  a 
steady  smooth  movement  is  more  easily  obtained 
than  with  the  claw  mounted  upon  a  sharp 
eccentric. 

For  such  work  where  there  is  no  desire  to 
exceed  two  hundred  pictures  or  so  per  second, 
the  ideal  camera  is  that  which  has  been  perfected 
by  Monsieur  M.  P.  Nogu6s,  of  the  Marey  Institute. 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  115 

In  general  appearance  this  camera  resembles  the 
ordinary  machine.  It  was  designed  specially  for 
the  purpose  of  field  work,  for  which  Monsieur 
Bull's  camera  is  not  suitable.  In  Monsieur  Bull's 
camera  the  illumination  is  effected  by  means  of 


FIG.  8. — Mechanism  of  the  Nogues  camera,  wherewith  np  to 
two  hundred  and  forty  pictures  per  second  can  be  taken. 

the  electric  spark,  and  it  is  impossible  by  this 
means  to  light  a  large  field. 

In  Monsieur  Nogues'  camera  there  are  two 
claws,  each  mounted  upon  its  own  eccentric,  and 
the  film  passes  between  them.  The  claws  do 
not  work  together.  That  is  to  say,  they  do  not 

I  2 


ii6    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

engage  the  film  simultaneously  on  both  sides, 
but  work  alternately.  When  one  is  engaged 
with  the  film  the  other  is  in  the  out  position. 
Without  entering  into  a  technical  description  of 
the  mechanism  it  may  be  stated  that  there  is  an 
articulated  lever  system,  so  designed  as  to  give 
the  claws  an  irregular  D-shaped  trajectory,  which 
is  very  rapid  and  abrupt,  the  ascent  of  the  claw 
to  re-engage  with  the  film  being  sharper  and 
quicker  than  is  possible  in  the  orthodox  design. 
The  general  design  of  the  claw  mechanism  and 
its  method  of  operation  may  be  gathered  from 
a  reference  to  Fig.  8,  wherein  the  paths  described 
by  the  moving  parts  are  indicated  clearly.  The 
handle  whereby  the  camera  is  operated  is  turned 
at  the  normal  speed  of  two  revolutions  per 
second,  but  this,  owing  to  the  gearing,  causes 
ninety  or  more  downward  jerks  to  be  imparted 
to  the  film  F  during  each  second.  This  makes 
one  hundred  and  eighty  film  movements  by  the 
two  claws  per  second,  and  consequently  one 
hundred  and  eighty  exposures. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  speed  at  which  the 
celluloid  ribbon  is  moved  through  the  camera, 
there  are  no  signs  whatever  of  tearing.  Further- 
more, the  film,  during  the  brief  period  of  exposure 
— from  sihjth  to  5^0th  part  of  a  second — remains 
perfectly  steady  and  quiet  in  the  gate. 

The  first  camera   built  on  this  principle  had 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  117 

a  maximum  speed  of  one  hundred  and  eighty 
pictures  per  second,  but  by  modifying  certain 
details  it  was  found  possible  to  increase  the 
velocity  in  a  subsequent  machine  to  two  hundred 
and  two  hundred  and  forty  pictures  per  second. 
This  represents  a  far  higher  speed  than  has  ever 
yet  been  attained  with  the  ordinary  moving- 
picture  apparatus.  The  machine  is  no  larger 
than  the  ordinary  type,  although,  owing  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  pictures  are  taken,  the 
externally  fitting  film-box  system  is  adopted,  so 
as  to  provide  a  supply  of  about  700  feet  of  film 
for  exposure. 

In  projection  on  the  screen  the  speed  is  reduced 
to  about  one-twentieth  or  more  of  the  rate  of 
the  exposure.  The  results  are  far  superior  to 
any  which  have  yet  been  seen  upon  the  screen. 
The  movements  are  steadier  and  more  con- 
tinuous, inasmuch  as  the  proportion  of  lost 
movement  is  about  one-twentieth  of  what  it  is 
with  the  orthodox  instrument.  The  result  is 
that  one  sees  upon  the  screen  many  phases  of 
movement  which  otherwise  escape  detection  or 
are  only  partially  shown  under  present  cinemato- 
graphing  conditions.  Owing  to  the  gearing  and 
the  balance  of  the  moving  parts  the  operation  of 
this  camera  is  not  more  fatiguing  than  that  of 
the  ordinary  instrument ;  indeed,  it  runs  far  more 
easily  and  lightly.  The  camera  has  been  evolved 


ii8    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

for  the  express  purpose  of  reinvestigating  many 
of  the  studies  conducted  by  Marey,  which,  owing 
to  the  imperfect  appliances  at  his  disposal,  are 
possibly  incomplete. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  where  is  the  demand  for 
pictures  taken  at  such  a  speed  ?  In  reply  it  is 
only  necessary  to  point  out  that  such  photo- 
graphing speeds  are  indispensable  in  studying 
the  motions  of  the  smaller  members  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  For  instance,  an  amateur  recently 
prepared  a  film  showing  the  life  and  habits  of 
lizards.  They  were  taken  at  the  normal  speed 
of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  which  the  operator 
judged  to  be  sufficient.  But  when  the  pictures 
were  shown  upon  the  screen,  the  very  motions 
which  are  the  most  interesting,  such  as  the 
movement  of  the  tongue,  jerk  of  the  head,  and 
so  forth,  were  lost.  Similarly,  another  film 
depicted  the  chameleon,  but  failed  to  catch  the 
instantaneous  throw  of  its  tongue.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  pictures  were  taken  at  the 
accelerated  speed  of  fifty  to  eighty  per  second, 
the  results  were  strikingly  different.  Not  only 
were  they  more  complete,  but  they  were  smoother, 
more  continuous,  and  more  natural ;  in  fact,  they 
were  practically  identical  with  those  which  the 
human  eye  observes  in  the  creatures  themselves. 
Phases  of  natural  movement,  capable  of  being 
recorded  at  speeds  ranging  between  eighty  and 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  119 

two  hundred  per  second,  are  the  most  promising 
spheres  of  moving-picture  activity  at  the  present 
moment.  Nature  study  never  fails  to  arouse 
enthusiasm,  while  from  the  operator's  point  of 
view  it  is  indescribably  fascinating.  Something 
unexpected  is  secured  at  every  turn  of  the  handle. 
The  portrayal  of  Nature  stirs  the  emotions  of 
wonder,  it  is  true  to  fact,  and  it  often  introduces 
the  spectator  to  something  about  which  he  has 
read  but  which  he  never  has  seen.  Consequently, 
so  far  as  life  is  concerned,  the  pictures  should 
never  be  taken  at  less  than  forty  to  fifty  per 
second,  unless  one  is  contented  to  have  a  mere 
distorted  impression  of  what  actually  takes  place. 
Even  moving-pictures  of  the  snail  or  tortoise, 
generally  considered  to  move  very  slowly,  should 
never  be  photographed  at  a  less  speed,  because 
these  have  actions  which  cannot  be  caught  at 
sixteen  pictures  per  second. 

Generally  speaking,  the  smaller  the  live  subject 
under  investigation,  the  more  rapid  should  be  the 
photographing  speed.  The  movements  of  a  bee's 
wings  cannot  be  caught  at  sixteen  or  even  two 
hundred  pictures  per  second.  This  was  proved 
some  time  ago  when  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull,  by 
the  aid  of  his  electric  spark  system,  and  special 
camera,  obtained  a  series  of  photos  showing  how 
a  bee  regains  its  normal  balance  when  it  is  upset. 
For  this  purpose  a  bee  was  launched  from  the 


120    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

special  apparatus  used  in  connection  with  the 
camera,  with  its  equilibrum  very  seriously  dis- 
turbed. So  rapid  was  its  recovery  that  twenty 
pictures  taken  in  succession  at  the  above  speed 
served  to  illustrate  the  whole  operation,  the 
final  photograph  showing  the  bee  in  normal 
flight.  This  was  the  first  occasion  wherein  this 
peculiar  phenomenon  had  been  photographically 
recorded,  and  the  unique  character  of  the  achieve- 
ment may  be  realised  from  the  fact  that  the  bee 
regained  its  balance  in  the  infinitesimal  period 
of  approximately  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
second. 

Even  in  photographing  a  man,  to  show  rapid 
walking  motion,  a  speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per 
second  is  far  from  adequate.  If  he  happens  to 
be  walking  at  four  miles  an  hour  quite  75  per 
cent,  of  the  motion  is  lost,  and  the  movement 
portrayed  under  these  conditions  is  spasmodic 
and  jerky.  For  a  natural  cinematographic  record 
of  a  man  walking,  at  the  present  orthodox  rate 
of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  his  pace  should 
not  exceed  a  mile  an  hour.  Therefore  to  film 
a  man  walking  at  four  miles  an  hour  the  photo- 
graphing speed  should  not  be  less  than  sixty- 
four  pictures  per  second. 

Though  the  ultra-rapid  movement  involves 
the  use  of  intricate  electrical  apparatus,  it  is  a 
peculiarly  absorbing  study.  The  appliances 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  121 

required  are  necessarily  expensive,  but,  since 
it  is  virtually  an  untouched  province,  enormous 
opportunities  await  the  patient  worker.  It  is 
additionally  attractive  because  each  worker  is 
to  a  very  great  extent  dependent  upon  his  own 
ingenuity  in  the  design  of  efficient  auxiliaries 
and  secondary  apparatus.  It  is  this  wide  scope 
for  individual  initiative  which  causes  rapid  cine- 
matography to  be  so  keenly  appreciated  by 
investigators,  and,  as  results  have  shown,  their 
discoveries  when  popularised  make  a  very  deep 
impression  on  the  public. 

Of  course,  in  projection,  it  is  useless  to  attempt 
to  throw  the  successive  pictures  upon  the  screen 
at  anything  approaching  the  speed  at  which  they 
were  snapped.  If  the  flight  of  a  bullet  recorded  at 
say  ten  thousand  images  per  second,  were  pro- 
jected at  a  corresponding  speed,  nothing  would 
be  seen.  So,  in  projection,  the  speed  is  slowed 
down  ;  the  subject  photographed  at  two  thousand 
pictures  per  second  is  thrown  upon  the  screen 
and  brought  to  the  eye  at  the  rate  of  sixteen 
pictures  per  second.  The  bullet  moves  across 
the  screen  with  the  pace  of  a  snail.  The  wings 
of  a  dragon  fly,  which  in  life  make  several 
hundred  oscillations  per  second,  appear  to  move 
as  sluggishly  as  those  of  a  barn-door  fowl. 
But  the  detail  and  the  complex  movements 
are  recorded  ;  the  eye  sees  and  follows 


122    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

something  which  has  formerly  been  beyond  its 
powers. 

If  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  speed  to  its 
absolute  slowest  point,  so  as  to  facilitate  even 
closer  study,  the  operator  can  take  advantage, 
to  an  extreme  degree,  of  the  phenomenon  of  the 
persistence  of  vision.  This  has  been  done  by 
Monsieur  Lucien  Bull.  It  is  impossible  to  reduce 
the  speed  of  projection  to  less  than  sixteen 
pictures  per  second,  for  this  is  the  lowest  rate 
at  which  the  laws  of  persistence  will  allow  of 
an  appearance  of  continuous  motion.  Yet  there 
is  an  ingenious  way  of  obtaining  the  equivalent 
of  a  speed  of  eight  pictures  per  second,  and  this 
without  either  disturbing  the  apparently  lifelike 
movement  or  producing  any  flicker.  The  method 
is  by  duplicating  each  separate  picture  of  the 
negative  upon  the  positive.  That  is  to  say 
each  negative  picture  is  printed  twice  in  succes- 
sion upon  the  positive,  so  that  12  inches  of  film, 
which  normally  would  carry  sixteen  successive 
and  different  pictures  carries  in  this  case  only 
eight.  When  projected  upon  the  screen,  at  the 
rate  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second,  the  eye  fails 
to  detect  that  it  is  seeing  every  picture  twice. 
This  might  almost  be  described  as  an  optical 
illusion,  and  it  makes  another  interesting  proof 
that  the  eye  can  be  deluded  by  cinematography. 
Monsieur  Bull,  after  having  found  that  the  eye 


SLOWING  DOWN  RAPID  MOVEMENTS  123 

did  not  observe  that  two  identical  pictures  were 
shown  in  succession,  endeavoured  to  carry  multi- 
plication still  farther.  He  found,  however,  that 
a  pair  of  pictures  was  the  limit.  When  three 
identical  pictures  were  shown  in  succession  the 
impression  upon  the  eye  was  too  long.  The 
movement  from  triplet  to  triplet  gave  a  disjointed 
effect  such  as  arises  in  ordinary  projection  when 
the  speed  is  too  slow. 


CHAPTER  X 

SPEEDING-UP   SLOW   MOVEMENTS 

THE  preceding  chapter  described  how  it  is  pos- 
sible to  photograph  extraordinarily  rapid  move- 
ments and  to  slow  down  in  projection  so  as  to 
enable  the  eye  to  follow  them.  Now  I  will  go  to 
the  other  extreme  and  show  how  the  very  slowest 
movements  can  be  accelerated  and  thrown  upon 
the  screen  in  continuous  motion.  This  feature 
has  proved  one  of  the  most  popular  in  the  whole 
range  of  cinematography,  for  it  has  enabled  the 
public  to  follow,  within  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes,  such  wonderful  and  apparently  impos- 
sible studies  as  the  growth  of  a  plant  from  the 
germination  of  the  seed  and  the  appearance  of 
the  leaves  to  the  bursting  of  the  bloom  and  the 
formation  of  the  seed  for  the  propagation  of  the 
species. 

The  speeding-up  of  relatively  slow  movements 
has  become  a  favourite  branch  of  research  among 
cinematograph  workers  mainly  because  it  is 
simple,  inexpensive,  and  comparatively  easy. 
The  worker  needs  to  develop  only  one  special 
faculty.  That  is  patience,  for  the  recording  of 


SPEEDING-UP  SLOW  MOVEMENTS    125 

a  single  subject  may  easily  extend  over  a  period 
of  a  month  or  so,  and  the  camera  has  to  be  kept 
going  night  and  day  to  produce  a  faithful  record. 
It  is  a  field  which  the  amateur  can  follow  very 
profitably.  It  puts  no  great  tax  on  his  skill.  The 
risk  of  failure  is  slight,  and  the  films  thus  obtained, 
if  worked  out  upon  popular  or  instructive  lines, 
are  certain  to  command  a  ready  market 

For  this  work  one  may  use  the  ordinary  £5  ($25) 
camera.  It  illustrates  the  fact  that  cinemato- 
graphy is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  string  of 
successive  snap-shots,  for  the  principle  is  that 
which  is  generally  described  as  "one  turn  one 
picture."  That  is  to  say,  instead  of  the  handle 
being  turned  continuously  as  in  taking  a  topical 
subject,  it  is  moved  at  stated  intervals,  and  only 
sufficiently  to  make  one  exposure  and  to  jerk  the 
film  downwards  the  required  distance  ready  to 
receive  the  succeeding  image.  It  virtually 
resolves  cinematography  into  ordinary  snap-shot 
or  Kodak  photography. 

This  development,  like  many  others  widely 
practised  in  the  moving-picture  world  to-day,  has 
issued  from  the  Marey  Institute.  It  was  there 
exploited  in  the  usual  manner  for  the  study  of 
natural  movement  and  phenomena.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  present  century,  even  before  the 
picture  palace  came  into  vogue,  the  workers  of 
this  institution  produced  a  short  length  of  film 


126    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

showing  the  opening  of  the  blossom  of  a  convol- 
vulus. Although  this  film  is  some  ten  years  old 
it  would  be  difficult  even  now  to  improve  upon 
it.  The  opening  movement  of  the  petals  is  so 
steady  and  perfect  as  to  suggest  that  the  exposure 
was  not  intermittent  but  continuous. 

In  these  particular  studies  success  in  the  main 
depends  upon  the  apparatus  employed  for  the 
periodical  exposure  of  the  film  and  the  judgment 
shown  in  deciding  the  lapse  of  time  between  the 
successive  exposures.  Naturally  this  varies 
according  to  the  characteristics  of  the  subject 
under  investigation.  A  mushroom,  for  instance, 
demands  exposure  at  briefer  intervals  than  would 
be  necessary  for  filming  the  growth  of  a  grain  of 
wheat.  The  timing  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  undertaking,  because  if  it  is  not 
gauged  to  a  nicety  the  movement  on  the  screen 
is  apt  to  be  unnatural,  the  growth  taking  place 
in  a  series  of  sudden  jerks  instead  of  proceeding 
slowly,  steadily  and  gracefully.  Many  a  first- 
class  film  of  this  character  has  been  ruined 
because  the  interval  between  the  exposures  has 
been  too  long  to  bring  about  the  necessary 
blending  together  of  the  motions  in  the  successive 
pictures.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down 
to  guide  the  worker.  Experience  and  close  study 
of  the  subject  being  photographed  can  alone 
enable  this  factor  to  be  determined. 


SPEEDING-UP  SLOW  MOVEMENTS    127 

The  auxiliary  apparatus  to  ensure  the  ex- 
posures being  made  at  regular  intervals  need  not 
be  of  an  intricate  character.  The  simpler  the 
means,  the  more  likely  is  the  result  to  be 
successful.  Clockwork  mechanism  can  be  de- 
vised to  open  the  shutter  at  stated  intervals,  but 
this  system  suffers  from  one  serious  disadvantage. 
The  mechanism  must  be  wound  up  regularly, 
and  when  a  long  study  is  in  progress,  extending 
over  a  fortnight  or  a  month,  the  worker  is  apt  to 
overlook  this  indispensable  duty.  There  is  one 
worker  who  generally  uses  a  water  motor,  and 
has  found  it  very  reliable ;  but  it  cannot  be  safely 
left,  and  it  ceases  to  act  if  the  public  water  supply 
be  cut  off. 

The  most  reliable  agent  for  such  work  is 
electricity.  When  the  Marey  Institute  first 
embarked  upon  these  tedious  subjects  a  very 
elaborate  apparatus  was  employed.  It  was  like 
a  gallows,  being  in  reality  a  massive  wooden 
frame  (see  illustration  facing  page  128)  fitted  with 
a  pulley.  A  rope  passed  over  this  pulley,  and  to 
one  end  was  attached  a  weight  P.  The  other 
end  passed  round  a  small  winch  T,  to  which  the 
camera  C  was  connected.  Upon  the  spindle 
connecting  these  two  parts  of  the  mechanism  was 
a  small  wing-piece  L,  one  of  the  extremities  of 
which  rested  upon  a  vertical  spindle  E  con- 
nected with  an  electro-magnet  F.  In  the 


128    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

electro-magnet  circuit  was  a  small  water-balancer 
B  having  two  cells  and  a  see-saw  motion.  This 
was  driven  by  a  stream  of  water  flowing  from  the 
tap  of  the  tank  R.  The  flow  of  water  from  the 
tap  could  be  regulated. 

When  the  elevated  cell  of  the  balancer  was 
filled,  its  weight  caused  it  to  fall.  As  it  fell  the 
electric  circuit  of  the  battery  V  was  closed. 
This  caused  the  small  vertical  rod  E  to  be 
drawn  downwards  by  the  electro-magnet  F. 
The  descent  of  the  rod  allowed  the  leaf  L  to 
fall.  The  make  and  break  in  the  electro-magnet 
was  instantaneous,  so  that  the  vertical  rod  E 
immediately  returned  to  its  normal  position,  with 
the  result  that,  when  the  wing  came  round,  after 
completing  a  revolution,  it  was  stopped,  and 
remained  there  until  the  second  cell  of  the  water- 
balancer,  filling  and  falling  in  its  turn,  repeated 
the  cycle  of  operations.  As  the  rod  carrying  the 
wing  L  was  the  common  axis  of  the  winch  and 
the  driving  mechanism  of  the  camera  the  release 
of  the  wing  brought  the  strain  of  the  weight  P 
upon  the  cord,  and  thereby  moved  the  camera 
driving  mechanism  a  complete  revolution.  Thus 
it  conformed  to  the  "  one-turn-one-picture  "  move- 
ment. It  was  a  combination  of  weight-driven  and 
electrical  mechanism,  and,  though  apparently 
complicated  and  certainly  cumbersome,  it  was 
satisfactory  because  it  completed  its  work  with 


By  courtesy  of  the 


Marey  Institute. 


THE  ELABORATE  APPARATUS  CONTRIVED  AT  THE  MAREY 
INSTITUTE  TO  TAKE  THE  FIRST  MOVING-PICTURES  OF 
THE  OPENING  OF  A  FLOWER. 

(For  explanation  see  p.  127.) 


THE  FIRST  MOTION-PICTURES  OF  AN  OPENING  FLOWER. 
Taken   at    the    Marey    Institute.     The  complete  opening   of   a 
convolvulus  is  shown  in  fifteen  pictures. 


By  courtesy  of  the  ^arey  Institute. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  COLONY  OF  MARINE  ORGANISMS. 

(Read  from  top  to  bottom  and  left  to  right.) 


SPEEDING-UP  SLOW  MOVEMENTS    129 

unerring  steadiness  and  regularity.  As  the 
weight  P  descended  a  very  small  distance  for 
each  exposure  a  single  winding-up  was  sufficient 
to  drive  the  mechanism  for  several  hours.  The 
intervals  between  the  exposures  could  be  varied 
by  turning  the  tap  on  or  off,  thereby  changing 
the  volume  of  water  flowing  into  the  balancer. 
The  thinner  the  water  stream  the  longer  the 
period  required  to  fill  the  cell,  the  longer  the 
interval  between  each  see-saw,  and  obviously  the 
greater  the  lapse  of  time  between  each  exposure. 
Similarly  the  time  intervals  between  each  ex- 
posure could  be  shortened  by  turning  on  the  tap 
so  that  the  cell  became  filled  more  quickly. 

In  the  Marey  Institute  investigations  with  the 
convolvulus,  which  was  placed  on  a  chair  a  short 
distance  from  the  lens  of  the  camera,  sixteen 
successive  snap-shots  were  made  in  the  hour. 
These  pictures,  taken  at  intervals  of  four  minutes, 
show  the  complete  opening  of  the  flower,  the 
phases  in  the  successive  pictures  blending  so 
well  together  as  to  convey  the  impression  that 
the  pictures  were  taken  at  the  normal  speed. 

A  striking  contrast  to  the  bulky,  weighty,  and 
massive  apparatus  employed  ten  years  ago  to 
photograph  intermittently  the  opening  of  a 
flower  is  the  latest  device  which  is  employed 
at  this  Institute  for  this  work.  It  is  a  small, 
light  compact  contrivance  driven  by  a  kind  of 

P.C.  K 


i3o    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

carriage  clock.  This  clock  actuates  two  levers 
whereby  electric  contacts  are  made  at  predeter 
mined  intervals  to  open  and  close  the  lens.  This 
mechanism  can  be  set  so  as  to  give  exposures 
at  intervals  ranging  from  a  minute  to  several 
hours,  and  will  run  for  twenty-four  hours 
without  attention.  The  apparatus  is  as  accurate 
as  it  is  ingenious. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  in  such  work,  that  a 
great  deal  depends  upon  the  personality  of  the 
worker  himself.  If  he  is  skilful  he  will  find  no 
difficulty  in  devising  a  reliable  timing  apparatus 
which  he  can  trust  for  hours  together.  But  the 
simpler  the  character  of  the  appliances  the  more 
trustworthy  will  they  prove,  because  the  reduc- 
tion in  the  number  of  the  component  parts  will 
decrease  their  liability  to  derangement  and 
irregular  action. 

Seeing  that  exposures  have  to  be  continued 
at  the  predetermined  intervals  throughout  the 
whole  twenty-four  hours,  arrangements  must  be 
made  for  artificial  illumination  during  the  night. 
This  should  not  prove  a  difficult  problem.  There 
is  a  wide  range  of  illuminants — electricity,  gas, 
acetylene,  etc. — from  which  a  choice  can  be 
made  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 
Thus  a  worker  living  in  country  districts  may 
find  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  electric  current  or 
coal  gas,  in  which  case  he  must  rely  upon 


SPEEDING-UP  SLOW  MOVEMENTS     131 

acetylene,  or  a  petrol  gas  flame,  in  conjunction 
with  an  incandescent  mantle,  or  even  an  electric 
battery  and  flash-lamp  with  a  reflector. 

If  electricity  or  coal  gas  are  available  from 
public  supply  sources  there  need  be  no  anxieties 
whatever.  A  metallic  filament  incandescent 
electric  lamp  of  high  power  is  quite  sufficient 
for  the  purpose,  and  if  there  is  need  for  a  con- 
centrated strong  light  it  can  be  obtained  by 
mounting  the  lamp  within  a  parobolic  reflector, 
such  as  is  used  for  automobiles.  Coal  gas  with 
an  incandescent  burner  and  mantle  is  just  as 
efficient,  and  concentration  in  this  case  can  be 
managed  in  the  same  way  with  a  reflector.  But 
it  is  necessary  to  make  sure  that  no  draughts 
play  upon  the  gas  flame,  as  the  intensity  of  the 
light  might  thus  be  greatly  impoverished. 

Acetylene  is  a  very  useful  and  powerful 
illuminant  when  all  else  fails.  It  is  the  nearest 
artificial  approach  to  sunlight.  Petrol  gas  with 
an  incandescent  mantle  will  be  found  just  as 
good  as  ordinary  coal  gas,  while  there  are  many 
cheap  lamps  well  adapted  for  its  use.  If  all 
these  alternatives  are  lacking  there  is  the  electric 
flash  lamp  working  with  the  dry  battery.  A 
tiny  metallic  filament  incandescent  bulb  mounted 
within  a  parabolic  reflector  will  give  a  light  of 
intense  brilliancy.  But  the  exhaustion  of  the 
battery  causes  the  value  of  this  light  to  diminish 

K  2 


132    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

in  a  relatively  short  time,  so  it  is  well  not  to  let 
it  burn  continuously.  There  should  be  a  means 
of  producing  the  flash  only  at  the  moment  the 
timing  apparatus  makes  the  exposure.  In  one 
application  of  this  system  the  flash  and  the 
movement  of  the  shutter  are  controlled  by  an 
electro-magnet,  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  lamp  lights  up  a  fraction  of  a  second  before 
the  shutter  is  moved.  Thus  the  object  under  study 
is  in  the  full  glare  of  the  light  before  the  film  is 
exposed.  Of  course,  if  a  high  capacity  accumulator 
can  be  obtained,  such  as  that  of  the  latest  Edison 
Nickel  type,  the  light  may  be  left  burning  con- 
tinuously. But  when  there  is  already  an 
electrical  system  of  actuating  the  shutter  it  is 
a  simple  matter  to  incorporate  a  means  of  limiting 
the  contact  in  the  lamp  to  the  moment  of  the 
exposure. 

For  the  average  worker,  however,  the  electrical 
system  is  too  costly.  He  will  usually  prefer  a 
form  of  light  which  can  be  allowed  to  burn  con- 
tinuously through  the  night.  Even  the  longest 
night  will  not  consume  a  very  great  quantity  of 
current  or  gas.  Also,  unless  some  very  accurate 
mechanism  is  used  for  controlling  the  intermittent 
operation  of  the  light,  there  is  always  a  chance 
that  the  exposure  and  the  illumination  may  fail 
to  synchronise,  and  thus  an  excellent  film  might 
be  ruined. 


SPEEDING-UP  SLOW  MOVEMENTS    133 

The  "  one-turn-one-picture  "  movement  has  to 
be  adopted  for  many  subjects  other  than  flowers. 
For  instance,  it  is  necessary  in  filming  the  move- 
ments of  the  star-fish,  in  evolution  phenomena 
such  as  the  emergence  of  a  chicken  from  its  shell, 
and  in  the  case  of  certain  minute  organisms 
which  can  be  cinematographed  only  with  the  aid 
of  a  microscope.  But  the  same  broad  principles 
appty  in  each  case ;  there  is  equal  need  for  time 
and  patience,  while  complete  success  can  only 
be  achieved  by  careful  observation  and  ingenuity. 
There  are  critical  moments  in  such  work  and 
the  unexpected  frequently  happens.  Unless  the 
operator  is  equal  to  the  emergency  weeks  of 
tedious  labour  may  be  wasted. 

The  study  of  exceedingly  slow  movements 
offers  a  very  promising  field  to  the  patient 
worker.  A  film  which  occupies  a  month  to 
photograph,  and  entails  an  exposure  once  every 
thirty  minutes,  produces  a  film  only  90  feet  in 
length.  In  projection  it  passes  across  the  screen 
in  a  minute  and  a  half.  This  means  that  a 
process  of  Nature  is  condensed  into  one  thirty- 
seven-thousandth  part  of  the  time  it  actually 
took,  and  its  presentation  on  the  screen  is  a 
remarkable  triumph.  But  at  first  sight  the 
minute  and  a  half  seems  a  very  slight  return 
for  the  time  and  labour  expended  This  is  one 
of  the  principal  reasons  why  the  professional 


134    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

cinematographer  displays  a  marked  aversion  to 
the  recording  of  slow  movements.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  offers  unique  attractions  to  the  private 
investigator,  for  the  time  occupied  in  preparing 
a  film  that  reveals  the  wonders  of  Nature 
invariably  commands  a  high  price  if  it  has  the 
elements  of  popularity  or  novelty. 


CHAPTER  XI 

CONTINUOUS   CINEMATOGRAPHIC   RECORDS 

IT  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the 
intermittent  method  of  taking  cinematograph 
pictures  results  in  the  loss  of  certain  motions 
which  occur  during  the  interval  when  the  lens 
is  eclipsed  by  the  shutter.  A  similar  loss  is 
experienced  by  the  eye,  in  daily  life,  when  it 
blinks.  In  the  case  of  blinking,  of  course,  the 
proportion  of  movement  which  escapes  observa- 
tion is  exceedingly  smalL  But  in  cinematography 
practically  one  half  of  the  movement  is  lost 
When  very  rapid  movements  are  being  investi- 
gated these  losses  become  appreciable — in  fact 
the  most  vital  part  of  a  motion  may  be  missed 
during  the  ^  part  of  a  second  during  which  the 
lens  is  covered  by  the  shutter. 

There  are  many  fields  in  which  cinematography 
as  at  present  practised  is  quite  useless  owing  to 
this  intermittent  eclipse  of  the  lens.  Suppose 
that  the  behaviour  of  a  rapidly  moving  piston 
rod  is  under  observation.  With  the  ordinary 
type  of  moving  picture  camera  and  process  the 
results  are  quite  misleading.  The  piston  travels 


136    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

so  rapidly,  perhaps  at  a  rate  of  8,000  lineal  feet 
per  minute,  that  with  sixteen  pictures  per  second 
only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  work  would 
be  recorded. 

This  deficiency,  however,  is  remedied  by 
another  development  in  chronophotography. 
This  is  the  continuous  cinematographic  record, 
the  outstanding  feature  of  which  is  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  revolving  shutter  and  the  intermittent 
movement  of  the  film,  in  favour  of  a  lens  that  is 
constantly  open,  a  sensitized  ribbon  that  moves 
steadily  and  continuously  all  the  time  the  experi- 
ment is  in  progress. 

Marey,  in  the  course  of  his  momentous  investi- 
gations with  animated  photography,  used  this 
system  for  a  number  of  experiments  in  which  an 
intermittent  exposure  would  not  have  afforded 
sufficiently  precise  results.  Recent  experiments 
have  substantiated  Marey's  contentions  upon 
this  point,  and  have  shown  how  unreliable  are 
the  results  obtained  with  sixteen  pictures  per 
second  where  extraordinary  precision  is  required. 
An  effort  was  made  to  remove  the  drawback  of 
the  intermittent  method  by  writing  in,  or 
divining,  the  movement  which  occurred  during 
the  periods  of  eclipse,  but  this  method,  in 
turn,  was  found  to  be  unreliable.  There  are 
some  motions  which  it  is  impossible  to  imagine 
or  anticipate,  even  if  they  do  occur  in  the 


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CONTINUOUS  RECORDS  137 

one-thirty-second  or  one-sixty-fourth  part  of  a 
second. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  continuous 
photographing  system  is  now  very  extensively 
employed.  It  has  undergone  many  wonderful 
developments  and  achieved  extraordinary  success. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  marvellous 
of  its  triumphs  was  won  with  the  extremely 
sensitive  -"string"  galvanometer,  which  was 
invented  by  the  eminent  Dutch  scientist, 
Professor  Einthoven.  This  particular  apparatus 
has  been  of  incalculable  value  to  the  medical  pro- 
fession, and  Monsieur  Lucien  Bull  has  constructed 
a  special  camera  with  the  idea  of  obtaining  per- 
manent and  continuous  cinematographic  records 
of  the  experiments  conducted  by  means  of  it 

The  apparatus  employed  for  this  particular 
sphere  of  operations  is  of  a  somewhat  involved 
character.  Fundamentally  the  camera  is  that 
which  was  designed  by  Monsieur  Bull  for  photo- 
graphing the  flight  of  insects  at  the  rate  of  two 
thousand  pictures  per  second,  but  it  has  been 
modified  to  suit  the  new  conditions.  The  reason 
why  it  offers  the  best  chance  of  securing  a  con- 
tinuous record  is  that  its  sensitized  ribbon  is 
mounted  upon  a  drum,  a  single  winding  of 
which  produces  a  photographic  record  about  3 
feet  6  inches  in  length. 

The  principle  of  the  Einthoven  string  galvano- 


138    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

meter  may  be  described  roughly  in  a  few  words. 
There  is  a  very  fine  conducting  wire,  or  fibre, 
of  platinum  or  silvered  quartz,  which  is  stretched 
across  the  magnetic  field  of  the  galvanometer. 
It  is  extremely  thin,  being  virtually  a  hair.  Now, 
when  an  electric  current,  ever  so  slight,  is 
transmitted  through  this  fibre,  or  string,  as  it 
is  called  by  the  inventor,  it  is  deflected  from 
its  position  of  rest,  the  extent  of  the  deviation 
varying  with  the  strength  of  the  electrical 
disturbance.  When  a  slight  current  is  sent 
through  the  string  it  may  betray  the  fact  with 
no  more  than  a  slight  tremor,  but  a  stronger 
current  will  cause  it  to  move  violently. 

A  pencil  of  light,  from  an  electric  arc  lamp,  is 
transmitted  through  the  galvanometer  in  such 
a  way  that  the  string  is  brilliantly  lighted.  An 
enlarged  image  of  the  string  is  then  thrown  upon 
the  sensitized  ribbon  in  the  camera  by  means  of 
a  powerful  microscope  lens. 

Seeing  that  the  time  and  distance  measurements 
in  such  delicate  experiments  as  these  are  of  the 
first  importance,  the  sensitized  surface  upon 
which  the  record  is  printed — paper  or  film — is 
calibrated  photographically  while  the  experiment 
is  proceeding.  It  is  divided  into  small  squares, 
the  longitudinal  lines  referring  to  the  time  factor, 
while  the  transverse  lines  indicate  the  extent  of 
the  movement  of  the  quartz  thread. 


CONTINUOUS  RECORDS  139 

This  continuous  record  system  is  of  inestimable 
value  in  connection  with  physiological  researches 
when  details  concerning  the  beating  of  the  heart 
are  desired.  A  person  who  places  a  finger  of 
each  hand  upon  the  extremities  of  the  string, 
witnesses  the  recording  of  his  own  heart  beats. 
For  the  brief  period  between  each  beat  the 
string  remains  quiescent  in  its  normal  position, 
and  the  record  of  the  same,  the  enlarged  shadow 
thrown  by  the  pencil  of  light  through  the  micro- 
scope lens,  is  made  upon  the  sensitized  surface 
within  the  camera  in  the  form  of  a  steady  straight 
line.  The  beat  of  the  heart  sends  an  impulse 
of  electricity  through  the  galvanometer,  and 
causes  the  string  to  deviate  rapidly.  As  the 
pencil  of  light  is  shining  continuously  through 
the  microscope  lens  of  the  instrument,  it  stands 
to  reason  that  the  slightest  tremor  of  the  thread, 
accentuated  in  the  shadow,  must  be  recorded. 
No  vibration  is  too  slight  to  be  caught.  Not 
only  is  the  extent  of  the  vibration  photographed 
and  capable  of  being  calculated  by  means  of 
the  calibration,  but,  as  the  sensitized  ribbon  is 
travelling  continuously  past  the  lens,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  vibration  is  photographed  as  well. 

In  the  case  of  a  normal  and  healthy  person  the 
number  of  vibrations  on  the  record,  corresponding 
to  heart-beats,  will  average  about  80  per  minute, 
and  their  extent  or  amplitude  will  remain 


140    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

comparatively  even.  But  if  the  person  is  in  bad 
health,  excited,  or  exhausted,  the  palpitations  will 
be  depicted  in  the  most  erratic  manner,  both  as 
regards  their  occurrence  and  their  force.  One 
very  powerful  palpitation,  for  instance,  may  be 
followed  by  a  comparatively  long  interval  of 
quiescence,  succeeded  by  several  spasmodic  short 
movements  at  brief  unequal  periods. 

From  the  medical  point  of  view  the  perfection 
of  the  system  offers  illimitable  opportunities.  In 
the  hospital,  where  a  patient  may  be  lying  in  a 
critical  condition,  the  surgeon  can  have  a  con- 
tinuous record  of  the  state  of  his  pulse  without  its 
being  felt  by  hand  at  intervals.  The  physician, 
in  unusual  or  baffling  cases  of  disease,  can  have 
a  photographic  record  of  the  pulse  and  heart 
movements  from  the  moment  the  symptoms 
develop  until  the  patient  either  dies  or  recovers. 
It  also  enables  the  physician  to  be  informed  as 
to  how  the  invalid  is  responding  to  his  treatment. 
Hitherto,  the  practice  has  been  to  feel  the  pulse 
at  varying  specified  intervals,  to  commit  the 
readings  to  a  chart,  and  then  to  connect  the 
points  by  lines  so  as  to  show  at  a  glance  whether 
heart  movement  has  accelerated  or  decelerated, 
and  to  what  degree.  Such  charts  are  satisfactory 
so  far  as  they  go,  but  they  may  be  erroneous, 
because  the  action  of  the  heart  may  have 
fluctuated  between  the  readings.  With  the 


CONTINUOUS  RECORDS  141 

continuous  photographic  system,  however,  guess- 
work does  not  enter  into  the  issue  at  all.  The 
complete  story  is  set  down  in  an  unimpeachable 
graphic  manner. 

Perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  feature  of  this 
development  is  that  the  very  sounds  of  the  heart 
palpitations  can  be  committed  to  a  sensitized 
surface  in  a  continuous  manner.  The  principle  is 
much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  record  of  the 
heart's  movements.  There  is  a  small  light  disk 
provided  with  an  aperture,  mounted  upon  a 
stand.  Across  this  aperture  is  stretched  a  thread 
of  platinum  or  quartz.  This  instrument  is  placed 
in  the  horizontal  path  of  a  pencil  of  light,  between 
the  camera  and  the  source  of  illumination,  so  that 
the  ray  passes  through  the  aperture  of  the  disk 
to  enter  the  lens  of  the  camera.  Consequently 
the  shadow  of  the  quartz  thread  is  thrown  upon 
the  sensitized  surface  in  the  camera. 

A  film  of  soapy  water  is  spread  over  the 
aperture  in  the  disk,  and  this,  of  course,  comes 
into  contact  with  the  quartz  thread.  The 
provision  of  this  film  in  reality  converts  the  disk 
into  a  very  sensitive  diaphragm.  Now  a  stetho- 
scope is  placed  over  the  patient's  heart,  the 
opposite  end  of  which  is  connected  to  the  disk  in 
such  a  way  as  to  bear  upon  the  surface  of  the 
soap  bubble.  When  the  heart  beats  the  noise 
which  is  set  up  thereby  is  received  by  the 


142    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

stethoscope  and  conveyed  to  the  soap  bubble. 
The  bubble,  being  very  sensitive,  responds  to 
the  sound  movement  in  greater  or  less  degree. 
As  it  vibrates,  it  naturally  moves  the  quartz 
thread  with  it,  and  the  moving  shadow  of  the 
string  is  caught  by  the  photographic  film  in  the 
camera. 

In  this  manner  the  surgeon  or  observer  can 
have  a  permanent  continuous  record  of  the  sound 
of  the  heart  beats  converted  into  movement,  and 
from  the  regularity  of  the  oscillations  he  is  able 
to  tell  whether  the  heart  is  beating  regularly.  If 
desired,  the  record  of  both  the  heart-beat  as 
demonstrated  by  the  galvanometer,  and  the 
sound  of  the  palpitation  as  indicated  by  the  soap 
bubble  diaphragm,  may  be  obtained  upon  one 
chart,  and,  in  synchrony,  so  as  to  set  a  double 
check  upon  the  observations. 

The  chronophotography  of  continuous  move- 
ment has  been  brought  to  a  high  stage  of 
perfection  by  the  searching  experiments  of 
Professor  Einthoven.  From  the  physiological 
point  of  view  he  has  contributed  most  valuable 
data  concerning  the  heart,  for  his  experiments 
have  been  with  subjects  of  all  ages  and  in 
varying  conditions  of  health.  The  investigations 
have  been  extended  to  animals  also,  showing  the 
differences  in  heart  beating  phenomena  between 
the  various  members  of  the  animal  kingdom. 


CONTINUOUS  RECORDS  143 

There  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  adopt  con- 
tinuous cinematography  in  preference  to  the 
intermittent  motion  for  many  other  phases  of 
particular  study,  especially  where  very  fine 
results  are  desired.  One  mechanical  engineer 
has  applied  the  method  to  the  measurement  of 
the  deflection  of  bridges  when  undergoing  tests. 
Monsieur  Deslandres  adopted  a  combination  of 
stylography  and  chronophotography  for  recording 
the  vibrations  in  metal  bridges  under  varying 
conditions  of  traffic  as  far  back  as  1892,  but  the 
direct  cinematograph  record  is  to  be  preferred. 
Sometimes  a  camera  has  been  used  in  combination 
with  the  existing  processes  of  observations,  so 
that  a  photograph  of  the  actual  movement  and  of 
its  extent  is  pbtained  simultaneously,  while  the 
calibration  of  the  sensitized  surface,  or  the  intro- 
duction of  a  clock,  like  that  used  by  Marey, 
enables  the  time  intervals  to  be  accurately  deter- 
mined. 

Another  ingenious  form  of  continuous  record, 
which  was  made  many  years  ago  by  Soret  and 
Georges  Demeny,  the  collaborator  of  Marey, 
has  been  revived  in  an  improved  form  by  Mr. 
Frank  B.  Gilbreth,  the  eminent  American 
authority  on  motion  study.  In  this  case  a 
moving  film  is  not  absolutely  essential,  but  under 
certain  conditions  it  is  to  be  preferred.  The 
object  of  the  study  is  the  tracing  of  motions  with 


144    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

a  view  to  their  improvement  and  expedition,  or 
the  elimination  of  unnecessary  actions,  so  that 
the  particular  task  may  be  achieved  in  less  time 
and  with  reduced  exertion. 

A  stationary  plate  may  be  used,  and  the  path 
of  the  motion  is  indicated  by  a  ribbon  of  light 
from  a  small  electric  incandescent  lamp  which  is 
attached  to  the  hand  or  other  limb  of  the  subject. 
In  this  instance  the  plate  presents  an  apparent 
jumble  of  lines,  but  by  the  aid  of  a  magnifying 
glass  the  complete  cycle  of  movements  can  be 
followed  from  end  to  end.  When  the  photo- 
graphs are  taken  upon  a  stationary  plate,  however, 
it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  taken  stereo- 
scopically,  so  that  relief  may  be  given  to  the 
picture  to  enable  the  movement  to  be  followed 
correctly.  The  hand  or  limb  may  not  be  visible 
in  the  photograph,  but  that  is  a  minor  detail, 
because  the  path  it  has  described  is  indicated  by 
the  lines  of  light.  When  the  subject  is  continually 
advancing,  where  it  does  not  double  back  upon 
itself,  a  slowly  moving  film  will  supply  a 
complete  and  perfect  graphic  record  of  its 
progress.  But  in  all  such  experiments  the 
timing  element  must  be  incorporated,  or  the 
record  will  have  little  practical  value,  and  will 
provide  no  conclusive  evidence. 

A  novel  application  of  this  method  was  carried 
out  by  Demeny  several  years  ago.  The  scope  of 


CONTINUOUS  RECORDS  145 

the  investigation  was  the  study  of  the  charac- 
teristic walks  and  gaits  incidental  to  certain 
maladies.  Patients  suffering  from  rheumatism 
and  other  complaints  which  interfere  with  the 
natural  walking  motions  were  taken  into  a 
darkened  room.  Incandescent  electric  lights 
were  attached  to  their  shoulders,  heads,  and 
other  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  these  were 
photographed  as  the  subjects  moved  about  the 
darkened  room.  The  results  upon  the  sensitized 
surface  were  merely  the  paths  described  by  the 
moving  lights.  There  have  been  many  applica- 
tions of  the  continuous  record,  especially  to  the 
work  of  testing  physical,  chemical,  or  electrical 
phenomena.  The  observer  is  certain  to  obtain  a 
correct  result  This  has  been  shown  in  certain 
microscopical  observations  where  the  movements 
are  extremely  rapid,  and  where  a  graphic  outline 
is  more  important  than  the  photographic  detail 
of  the  subject 

The  great  advantage  of  the  continuous  cine- 
matographic system  is  that  it  records  every 
movement.  Even  the  slightest  vibrations  will  be 
indicated,  and  upon  a  large  or  small  scale  accord- 
ing to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  travelling 
sensitized  surface  is  moved  through  the  camera. 
Comparative  investigation  between  this  and  the 
other  systems  has  proved  that  the  continuous 
cinematograph  shows  many  motions  which  the 

P.C.  L 


146    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

former  systems  lose.  It  has  introduced  the  in- 
vestigator to  many  curious  phenomena  of  which 
he  was  previously  ignorant. 

One  thing  must  be  emphasised.  It  is  the 
salient  difference  between  the  ordinary  cinemato- 
graphic method  and  the  continuously  moving 
film  process.  The  first  records  upon  the  film 
a  complete  picture  of  the  subject.  The  second 
records  only  the  path  or  trajectory  of  a  single 
point,  or  at  the  utmost  of  a  number  of  points,  of 
the  subject  under  observation.  This  remark  does 
not  refer  to  the  method  of  cinematographing  with 
the  electric  spark,  which  is  a  totally  different 
and  special  application  of  the  art. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY  I  HOW  THE  X-RAYS  ARE 
USED  IN  CONJUNCTION  WITH  THE  MOVING- 
PICTURE  CAMERA 

WITH  the  perfection  of  radio-photography  it 
was  not  surprising  that  the  cinematograph 
investigator  pressed  this  new  development  into 
service.  It  opened  up  a  wide  and  fascinating 
field  for  moving  pictures.  When  the  Rontgen 
rays  were  first  introduced  there  was  one  serious 
handicap  to  photography  by  their  means — the 
length  of  the  exposure.  But  the  chemist  and 
the  scientist  speedily  removed  this  adverse 
factor,  and  now  X-ray  photographs  can  be  taken 
instantaneously — 60  per  minute. 

Long  before  this  achievement  Radio-photo- 
graphy had  been  yoked  with  the  moving  pictures. 
It  was  a  difficult  problem,  but  it  was  solved. 
One  scientific  inventor  stands  out  prominently 
in  this  connection.  This  is  Monsieur  M.  J. 
Carvallo  who,  during  his  position  as  sub-director 
and  "secretary  of  the  Marey  Institute,  spared  no 
effort  to  harness  the  X-rays  to  cinematography. 
Another  illustrious  worker  is  Dr.  J.  Comandon, 

L  2 


148    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

who  may  be  said  to  be  the  pioneer  of  the 
popularisation  of  cinematographic  science.  It 
was  he  who  first  appealed  to  the  public  with 
films  of  this  character  under  the  auspices  of  the 
well-known  firm  of  Pathe  Freres.  He  has  been 
responsible  for  the  preparation  of  many  most 
interesting  films.  Both  of  these  workers  have 
shown  what  can  be  achieved  in  this  direction, 
while  the  fact  that  they  proceed  upon  totally 
different  lines  adds  value  to  their  work.  It 
enables  their  followers  to  decide  for  themselves 
which  principle  is  likely  to  produce  the  most 
satisfactory  result  in  each  case. 

Strictly  speaking,  Monsieur  Carvallo's  methods 
would  appeal  more  strongly  to  the  scientific 
mind,  bent  upon  the  discovery  of  some  abstruse 
phenomena,  and  indifferent  to  the  complicated 
process  involved.  The  methods  of  Dr.  Comandon, 
on  the  other  hand,  from  their  enhanced  simplicity, 
will  attract  the  average  worker.  This  investi- 
gator makes  a  special  point  of  accomplishing  his 
end  in  as  simple  a  manner  as  possible. 

From  this  it  will  be  judged  that  radio-cinemato- 
graphy may  be  expensive  or  inexpensive.  This 
is  a  correct  assumption,  but  the  amateur  investi- 
gator need  not  fear  that  the  deeper  researches 
are  beyond  his  reach.  In  justice  to  Monsieur 
Carvallo,  it  must  be  mentioned  that  his  experi- 
ments were  undertaken  at  a  time  when  radio- 


By  courtesy  of  the  Varev  Institute. 

A  WONDERFUL  X-RAY  FILM  MADE  BY  M.  J.  CARYALLO. 

The  process  of  digestion  in  the  intestine  of  a  frog  after  its 
removal  from  the  bodv. 


B_y  courtesy  of  the  Marey  Institute. 

MOVING  X-RAY  PICTURES  OF  THE  DIGESTION  OF  A  FOWL. 

These  pictures,  taken  at  five  per  second  by  M.  J.  Carvallo, 
show  the  different  phases  in  a  complete  cycle  of  the  gizzard, 
which  lasts  exactly  five  seconds. 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         149 

photography  had  not  reached  its  present  stage, 
and  therefore  he  had  to  contend  with  certain 
difficulties  which  no  longer  exist. 

Monsieur  Carvallo  was  probably  the  first 
worker  to  attempt  to  portray  in  movement  the 
elusive  and  peculiar  features  revealed  by  the 
Rontgen  rays.  One  or  two  other  scientists  had 
dabbled  in  the  art,  but  their  achievements  were 
not  very  convincing  for  the  simple  reason  that 
they  did  not  employ  chronophotography.  Mon- 
sieur Carvallo,  however,  being  fully  aware  of  the 
valuable  work  that  had  been  carried  out  by 
Dr.  E.  J.  Marey,  saw  the  true  way  of  applying 
radiography  to  cinematography,  and  saw  that  it 
could  not  fail  to  be  of  scientific  value.  He  em- 
barked upon  a  number  of  illuminating,  though 
tedious,  experiments,  in  the  effort  to  combine 
these  two  branches  of  photography. 

Carvallo's  installation  was  of  a  most  elaborate 
character,  but  he  accomplished  some  marvellous 
results,  the  full  significance  of  which  are  appre- 
ciated only  to-day.  The  complete  apparatus  he 
used  in  his  experiments  is  shown  in  Fig.  9. 
The  source  of  energy  was  a  small  electric 
motor,  capable  of  making  2,000  revolutions  per 
minute  with  a  current  of  only  50  volts.  This 
motor  was  extremely  sensitive,  since  it  would 
make  300  revolutions  per  minute  with  a  current 
of  10  volts.  The  control  of  the  speed  was 


i5o    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

essential  to  his  work,  so  he  elaborated  a  simple 
and  ingenious  change-speed  gear  mechanism, 
which  enabled  him  to  drive  the  camera  at  four 
different  speeds  without  touching  the  motor. 
The  gear  mechanism  was  not  dissimilar  from 
that  adopted  upon  a  larger  scale  in  automobiles, 
lathes,  and  other  machinery  where  the  speed  has 
to  be  varied  according  to  the  character  of  the 
work.  The  direct  drive  was  transmitted  from 
the  motor-shaft  to  that  of  the  camera  mechanism 
through  a  belt  and  pulleys  so  as  to  secure 
flexibility  and  immunity  from  shocks.  The 
three  lower  speeds  were  transmitted  through 
gear  wheels.  These  sets  of  wheels  were  mounted 
upon  two  parallel  shafts  and  worked  upon  the 
sliding  principle,  which  was  found  to  be  the 
simplest  and  most  effective.  In  order  to  reduce 
the  noise  arising  from  the  meshing  and  working 
of  the  gears  the  smaller  wheels  were  made  of 
fibre. 

By  this  gearing  system  it  was  possible  to  vary 
the  speed  of  the  camera  from  30  revolutions  per 
second  to  one  turn  in  15  seconds.  When  still 
slower  speeds  were  desired,  upon  the  one-turn- 
one-picture  principle,  the  motor  was  cut  in  and 
cut  out  intermittently  so  that  the  exposure  could 
be  varied  from  once  in  20  seconds  to  once  in  an 
hour  or  more.  Of  course,  in  those  instances 
where  the  exposures  only  needed  to  be  made  at 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         151 


FIG.  9. — The  ingenious  radio-cinematographic  apparatus 
devised  by  Monsieur  M.  J.  Carvallo. 

A.A.  Film  spools.  B.  Crookestube.  C.  Frog  being  radio- 
graphed. D.  Coil.  F.  Film.  F.  Clock.  G.  Exposure 
interrupter.  H.  Change-speed  gears. 


1 52    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

relatively  prolonged  intervals,  the  driving  motor 
was  started  up  intermittently  so  as  to  move  the 
shutter  at  the  required  moment.  A  pendulum 
clock  was  introduced  into  the  electrical  circuit, 
together  with  a  novel  relay.  The  clock-face  was 
provided  with  a  ring  around  the  dial,  with  the 
hour  intervals  represented  by  contacts  instead 
of  figures.  The  clock  was  fitted  with  one  hand 
only.  One  electrical  lead  was  connected  to  the 
contact  ring  and  the  other  to  the  pivoted  end  of 
the  clock-hand.  When  the  latter  came  against 
one  of  the  contacts  the  electrical  circuit  was  com- 
pleted, the  motor  was  set  in  motion,  and  the 
camera  mechanism  was  given  one  turn — suffi- 
cient to  make  an  exposure  and  to  jerk  the  film 
forward  the  desired  distance  through  the  gate 
for  the  next  exposure.  Obviously  this  clock 
system  is  capable  of  variation  as  desired.  The 
contacts  may  be  disposed  to  coincide  with 
intervals  of  a  second,  a  minute,  an  hour,  or  more 
between  successive  exposures.  It  was  necessary 
to  ensure  that  the  contact  was  of  sufficient  duration 
to  complete  the  cycle  of  camera  movements,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  prevent  the  motor  move- 
ment being  so  prolonged  that  more  than  the 
requisite  exposure  and  movement  of  the  film 
would  be  made.  This  was  effected  by  means 
of  a  brake,  which  arrested  the  movement  of  the 
motor  after  the  exposure  had  been  completed. 


By  permission  of  Pathe  Freres. 

Two  OF  DR.  J.  COMANDON'S  EARLIEST  INVESTIGA- 
TIONS IN  RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY. 

i.  X-ray  moving-pictures  of  the  bending  of  the 
knee,  showing  muscular  movement.  2.  X-ray  film 
of  the  opening  of  the  hand. 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         153 

With  this  seemingly  complicated  apparatus  it 
was  possible  to  take  any  desired  number  of 
successive  pictures  and  at  any  intervals  of  time 
with  unerring  precision. 

For  these  particular  experiments  a  special  film 
was  prepared,  for  the  pictures  produced  by  the 
standard  camera  were  not  large  enough. 
Monsieur  Carvallo  took  pictures  of  a  depth  of 
2f  inches  instead  of  the  usual  f  inch.  Special 
arrangements  were  made  also  to  secure  extreme 
sensitiveness  of  the  emulsion  so  that  it  might 
be  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of  the  X-rays. 
The  disposition  of  the  film  followed  special  lines, 
as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  diagram 
(Fig.  9).  The  Crookes  tube,  containing  the 
X-rays,  was  placed  beneath  a  table  provided 
with  an  aperture  upon  which  was  laid  a  trans- 
parent medium,  such  as  glass,  to  support  the 
subject  under  investigation.  Above  this  was 
placed  the  gate  through  which  the  film  was 
moved  intermittently,  the  sensitized  ribbon 
travelling  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  one 
spool  to  the  other.  In  the  early  experiments 
a  Maltese  cross  movement  was  incorporated  to 
provide  the  requisite  intermittent  motion  to  the 
film,  but  subsequently  a  novel  claw  motion 
devised  by  Monsieur  Nogu&s,  the  mechanician 
to  the  Marey  Institute,  was  introduced  with  far 
better  results. 


154    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

In  carrying  out  the  experiments  with  different 
live  subjects  extreme  ingenuity  was  used  in 
placing  and  holding  the  creature  so  that  the 
most  perfect  images  might  be  obtained.  Mon- 
sieur Carvallo  devoted  his  energies  largely  to 
radio-cinematographing  the  functions  of  digestion, 
and  selected  such  subjects  as  fresh-water  fish, 
toads,  frogs,  lizards,  birds,  and  mice.  Thus  he 
obtained  comparative  results  from  five  species 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  subjects  were  fed 
first  with  a  special  diet,  comprising  a  mixture 
of  flour,  sugar,  peptone,  sub-nitrate  of  bismuth, 
and  water  or  milk.  The  chemical,  sub-nitrate 
of  bismuth,  was  used  in  order  to  give  the  ali- 
mentary canal  the  necessary  opacity  to  secure 
the  best  results  under  the  Rontgen  rays.  In  the 
case  of  the  trout  the  chemical  was  injected  into 
the  blood. 

In  order  to  obtain  sharp,  clear,  and  distinct 
pictures  upon  the  film,  the  subject  under  study 
had  to  be  fixed  in  an  immovable  position.  In 
the  case  of  a  trout  a  small  celluloid  envelope  was 
made,  fitted  at  each  end  with  a  small  glass  tube 
through  which  water  necessary  to  the  fish's 
existence  was  passed  in  a  continuous  stream. 
This  vessel  was  only  just  large  enough  to  contain 
the  fish,  so  that  movement  was  quite  impossible. 
The  top  of  the  vessel  was  closed  with  a  sheet 
of  paraffin  paper,  which  was  placed  in  front  of 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         155 

the  aperture  of  the  film  gate.  It  was  a  very 
novel  and  successful  means  of  radio-cinemato- 
graphing  a  fish  under  natural  conditions.  The 
fish  themselves  appeared  to  suffer  no  ill-effects 
from  the  method  adopted  to  keep  them  alive, 
a  trout  in  one  instance  being  kept  in  this  confined 
position  for  two  consecutive  days.  So  long  as 
an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  water  was  passed 
through  the  celluloid  vessel  in  which  it  was 
encased  it  experienced  no  trouble  in  respiration. 

In  the  case  of  the  toad  and  frog  the  subject 
was  kept  in  a  prone  position  by  attaching  thin 
ribbons  to  the  legs  and  extending  the  latter  to 
their  utmost  so  that  the  digestive  organs  might 
be  radiographed  clearly,  distinctly,  and  without 
difficulty.  The  lizard,  which  is  very  difficult  to 
photograph,  was  secured  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  birds  likewise  were  attached  by  their  legs, 
and  had  their  wings  extended  so  that  the  body 
came  directly  in  the  path  of  the  rays.  When 
young  birds  were  under  investigation  it  was 
necessary  to  maintain  a  circulation  of  warm 
water  around  their  bodies  so  that  the  tempera- 
ture might  remain  constant ;  otherwise  the 
digestive  functions  might  have  been  disturbed, 
thereby  invalidating  the  value  of  the  pictures. 
In  one  investigation  a  fowl  was  placed  in  a 
plaster  cast  so  as  to  hold  it  perfectly  still  and 
steady. 


156    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

The  photographic  speed  was  varied  according 
to  the  character  of  the  investigation  and  the 
subject.  Thus,  in  recording  the  digestion  in  the 
stomach  and  intestine  of  the  trout,  an  exposure 
was  made  every  twenty  seconds.  In  the  case  of  the 
toad  the  speed  was  one  in  every  ten  seconds, 
while  the  chicken  required  one  in  every  five. 

One  of  the  most  novel  experiments  which 
Monsieur  Carvallo  carried  out  in  this  particular 
field  was  to  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  diges- 
tion will  continue  in  the  intestine  after  it  is 
removed  from  the  animal.  The  digestive  tube 
of  the  frog  was  selected  for  this  novel  investiga- 
tion and  the  photographs  taken  at  the  rate  of 
one  per  second  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  digestive 
organ  will  continue  its  functions  long  after  its 
removal  from  the  body. 

Since  the  year  1900  when  Monsieur  Carvallo 
carried  out  his  scientific  researches  with  the 
ROntgen  rays,  radiographic  science  has  made 
great  strides.  Researches  of  this  character  no 
longer  require  elaborate  and  expensive  apparatus. 
This  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  J.  Comandon,  the 
well-known  French  scientist,  who,  at  the  labora- 
tories of  Messrs.  Path6  Frfcres,  has  prepared 
some  magnificent  X-ray  films  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  make  them  interesting  to  the  average 
patron  of  the  picture  palace.  Dr.  Comandon 
possesses  the  unique  ability  of  so  treating  his 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         157 

subject  as  to  make  it  appeal  to  the  unscientific 
mind. 

In  his  system  Dr.  Comandon  does  not  radio- 
cinematograph  directly  in  the  manner  of 
Monsieur  Carvallo,  but  has  recourse  to  the 
fluorescent  screen,  thereby  obtaining  his  results 
much  more  simply  and  easily.  By  this  means, 
also,  he  is  able  to  use  the  standard  cinematograph 


FIG.  10. — Dr.  Comandon's  radio-cinematographic  apparatus. 

camera  and  film  without  any  modifications,  the 
images  upon  the  sensitized  celluloid  ribbon  being 
of  the  normal  size.  The  general  arrangement 
of  the  apparatus  used  by  this  investigator  is 
shown  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  10).  A  room  is 
divided  by  a  partition  A.  On  one  side  is  placed  a 
camera  F  of  the  conventional  type.  On  the  other 
is  the  necessary  electrical  apparatus.  An 
aperture  B  is  provided  in  the  partition,  and  this 
space  is  filled  with  a  fluorescent  screen.  On  one 


158    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

side  of  the  partition  A  centrally  in  regard  to  the 
fluorescent  screen,  and  a  little  distance  therefrom, 
is  placed  the  Crookes  tube  C,  the  subject  under 
investigation  being  placed  between  the  tube  and 
the  screen.  Consequently,  the  radiograph  is 
projected  upon  the  fluorescent  screen  and  this 
image  is  then  photographed  by  the  camera.  At 
the  normal  photographing  speed  the  exposure  is 
about  -£%  second. 

The  fluorescent  screen  employed  by  Dr. 
Comandon  is  of  the  type  known  as  "  reinforced." 
It  is  covered  with  tungstate  of  calcium,  instead 
of  barium  platino-cyanide.  With  this  screen 
the  Rontgen  rays  are  intensified,  or  rather  are 
transformed,  the  luminous  radiation  being 
rendered  more  actinic  and  therefore  able  to 
act  more  quickly  upon  the  emulsion  of  bromide 
of  silver  with  which  the  film  is  coated.  By  using 
this  fluorescent  screen  the  exposure  is  reduced 
to  about  one-tenth  of  what  would  be  required 
were  the  subject  radiographed  direct. 

The  high  tension  current  is  supplied  from  an 
apparatus  of  a  special  type  E  with  which  a  current 
as  high  as  100,000  volts  can  be  obtained.  Another 
prominent  feature  is  the  high  tension  interrupter 
D,  which  cuts  the  electric  circuit  of  the  tube  in 
and  out,  in  synchrony  with  the  camera  mechanism. 
Thus  the  Crookes  tube  is  active  while  the 
shutter  is  open  but  inactive  while  it  is  closed. 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         159 

This  interrupter  consists  of  a  small  glass 
vessel,  charged  with  petrol,  and  sealed  with  a 
cover  of  insulating  material.  Within  the  vessel, 
and  spaced  about  2  inches  apart,  are  two  brackets, 
which  extend  through  the  sides  of  the  receptacle 
through  hermetically  sealed  joints.  To  these 
brackets  the  positive  and  negative  wires  are 
coupled  Above  the  brackets,  and  moving  within 
the  vessel,  is  an  inverted  U-shaped  piece.  This 
slides  up  and  down  through  apertures  provided 
for  the  purpose  in  the  insulated  cover.  When 
lowered  to  its  full  extent  the  arms  rest  upon  the 
brackets,  to  which  the  wires  are  attached,  and 
this  contact  completes  the  electrical  circuit  A 
pulley  wire  is  fixed  to  the  centre  of  the  inverted 
U -piece  to  allow  it  to  be  moved  up  and  down 
as  required  The  up-and-down  movement  serves 
as  a  make-and-break  for  the  circuit  A  lift  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  suffices  to  break  the  circuit, 
which  lift  is  effected  by  the  mechanism  of  the 
camera  over  a  system  of  cords  and  pulleys. 
Thus,  when  the  camera  handle  is  turned  to  open 
the  shutter,  the  contact  piece  in  the  interrupter 
is  lowered,  the  circuit  is  completed,  and  the 
Crookes  tube  is  brought  into  use.  Directly  the 
shutter  is  closed  the  contact  piece  is  raised  and 
the  tube  is  disconnected.  This  simple  control 
permits  the  exposure  to  be  varied  from  five  or 
six  to  sixteen  exposures  per  second,  while  the 


160    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

tube  can  be  kept  continuously  at  work  for  as 
many  as  fifty-five  seconds  if  desired. 

The  camera  is  fitted  with  a  lens  made  from 
quartz,  which  permits  the  maximum  quantity  of 
the  actinic  rays  to  pass  through  to  the  sensitized 
film.  The  film  is  covered  with  an  exceptionally 
sensitive  emulsion  in  order  to  ensure  the  best 
results  possible  with  very  short  exposures.  In 
order  to  protect  the  spools  of  film  in  the  camera 
from  the  actinic  properties  of  the  rays  diffused 
from  the  fluorescent  screen,  the  boxes  are  covered 
with  sheet  lead,  while  the  operator  is  protected 
with  a  lead  apron,  such  as  is  used  generally  in 
Rontgen  ray  investigations. 

The  many  interesting  films  which  Dr. 
Comandon  has  produced  offer  adequate  testi- 
mony to  the  practicability  and  success  of  the 
system  which  he  has  evolved.  Undoubtedly  it 
is  the  simplest  and  most  inexpensive  method  of 
"  radio-cinematography  "  which  has  been  brought 
into  practical  operation  up  to  the  present,  and 
it  is  one  which  may  be  followed  by  the  private 
investigator  with  such  modifications  as  may 
suggest  themselves  in  particular  cases. 


CHAPTER    XIII 

COMBINING  THE  MICROSCOPE  AND  THE  ULTRA- 
MICROSCOPE  WITH  THE  MOVING  -  PICTURE 
CAMERA 

ONE  of  the  most  fascinating  fields  in  the  whole 
realm  of  animated  photography  is  the  filming  of 
the  infinitely  small  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 
In  this  manner  it  is  possible  to  catch  glimpses  of 
bacterial  and  microbic  life  in  natural  movement, 
and  to  throw  them  upon  the  screen,  where  the 
extreme  magnification  enables  one  to  follow  with 
ease  the  motions  of  a  living  world  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye.  Furthermore,  the  representation 
upon  the  screen  is  clearer,  brighter,  more  detailed, 
and  easier  to  follow,  than  any  image  seen 
directly  through  the  microscope.  There  is  an 
absence  of  that  distortion  and  unnatural  motion 
which  often  occur  when  the  microscope  alone  is 
used. 

Micro-cinematography  may  be  either  costly  or 
cheap.  As  the  operator  in  a  well-equipped  labora- 
tory is  able  to  use  a  camera  costing  £100  ($500), 
it  is  only  natural  to  suppose  that  he  will  also  be 
able  to  command  the  services  of  the  most 

p.c.  M 


162    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

expensive  type  of  microscope.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  independent  worker,  forced  by  cir- 
cumstances to  be  content  with  an  inexpensive 
camera,  will  have  to  do  the  best  he  can  with  an 
inexpensive  microscope  also.  Yet  the  in- 
vestigator of  each  class  can  accomplish  excellent 
work  in  his  own  sphere.  I  have  seen  some  very 
fine  films  of  microscopic  subjects  which  were 
taken  with  an  instrument  costing  less  than  a 
sovereign.  From  the  general  point  of  view  they 
compared  very  favourably  with  those  obtained 
with  an  instrument  twenty  times  as  costly.  So 
long  as  the  amateur  does  not  attempt  to  embark 
upon  work  which  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  his 
microscope,  and  is  content  to  work  with  subjects 
of  relatively  large  size,  there  is  no  reason  why  he 
should  not  be  able  to  take  most  interesting 
pictures. 

In  the  preparation  of  micro-cinematographic 
subjects  it  is  essential  that  the  instruments 
should  be  mounted  upon  a  solid  base,  a  heavy 
bench  or  table,  so  that  vibrations  may  be  as 
slight  as  possible.  The  camera  may  be  turned 
by  hand  or  driven  by  an  electric  motor  through 
belts  and  pulleys. 

The  method  of  mounting  the  microscope  in  its 
relation  to  the  camera  may  be  varied  according  to 
circumstances.  In  the  simplest  form  the  micro- 
scope is  mounted  horizontally  with  the  stage  on 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         163 

which  the  subject  is  placed  set  vertically,  the 
subject  itself  being  in  line  with  the  middle  of  the 
cinematograph  lens. 

In  working  with  the  microscope  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  objects  are  seen  by 
transparence.  That  is  to  say,  the  ray  of  light 
passes  directly  through,  or  around,  the  object, 
causing  it  to  stand  out  darkly  upon  a  luminous 
background.  From  this  arises  one  of  the 
limitations  of  the  microscope.  If  the  subjects 
themselves  are  wholly  or  nearly  transparent, 
they  become  wholly  or  nearly  indistinguishable 
in  the  illuminated  field  in  which  they  are 
placed.  In  still-life  microscopical  study  this 
disadvantage  is  overcome  by  colouring  the  glass 
slide  on  which  the  subjects  are  deposited,  but  in 
cinematography  this  operation  is  ruinous  to 
the  work  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  aniline 
dye  used  to  colour  the  slide  kills  the  microbe 
whose  life  and  movements  are  to  be  observed. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  very  small 
organisms,  as  a  rule,  move  at  a  speed  which  is 
quite  disproportionate  to  their  size.  Some  will 
dart  hither  and  thither  across  the  field  of  the 
microscope  with  the  speed  of  lightning,  while 
others  will  move  with  great  deliberation.  In  the 
first  case  a  photographing  speed  of  sixteen 
pictures  per  second  will  scarcely  suffice  to  give  a 
faithful  record  of  movement.  The  result  will  be 

M  2 


164    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

a  series  of  disconnected  jumps.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  object  moves  slowly,  a  photographing 
speed  of  sixteen  pictures  per  second  may  be  too 
rapid.  In  this  event  the  phase  of  movement 
between  two  successive  pictures  will  be  so  slight 
that  the  projection  on  the  screen  will  appear  tame 
unless  the  express  object  is  to  indicate  the  slow- 
ness with  which  the  organism  moves.  And  indeed 
this  object  can  be  achieved  with  almost  equally 
good  results  by  taking  the  pictures  at  a  slower 
speed,  say  eight,  four,  or  even  two  images  per 
second,  and  thus  saving  a  good  deal  of  film. 

In  most  cases  the  micro-cinematographer  works 
in  a  state  of  ignorance.  He  does  not  know 
whether  he  is  obtaining  a  good  or  a  -bad  film. 
His  subject  may  be  moving,  or  it  may  be 
quiescent,  or  it  may  hover  round  the  extreme  edge 
of  the  luminous  field,  in  which  case  the  pictures 
will  be  useless.  When  Mr.  James  Williamson 
and  Dr.  Spitta  were  engaged  on  micro-cine- 
matograph studies  some  years  ago,  they  intro- 
duced a  means  of  following  the  subject  through, 
a  second  tube,  and  in  this  way  were  able  to. 
make  certain  that  the  camera  was  working  only 
during  those  periods  when  the  subject  was  in  full 
activity,  near  the  centre  of  the  picture.  In  this 
way  a  considerable  saving  in  film  was  effected. 

Another  difficulty  is  the  selection  and  control 
of  the  light.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 


By  courtesy  of  the 


Marty  Institute. 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPH  USED  AT  THE  MAREY  INSTITUTE  FOR  INVESTI- 
GATING MINUTE  AQUATIC  LIFE. 

A.  One  turn  one  picture  control  mechanism.  B.  Camera.  C.  Micro- 
scope. P.  Small  tank  in  which  organism  is  placed,  through  which  a 
stream  of  water  from  tank  F  runs  continually.  E.  Incandescent  gas 
jet  for  illuminating  object. 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY     THE  PROBOSCIS  OF  THE  BLO\ 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         165 

concentrate  solar  light  by  means  of  a  parabolic 
reflector  or  lens,  and  then  to  throw  it  through 
the  microscope  slide.  The  great  drawback  to 
this  system  is  that  intense  heat  is  thrown  upon 
the  slide  containing  the  organisms,  and  for  these 
small  creatures  heat  spells  death.  The  same 
difficulties  arise  with  acetylene  and  electric  light. 
What  is  necessary  is  either  to  extinguish  the 
light  at  intervals,  in  synchrony  with  the  closing 
of  the  lens,  or  to  intercept  it  so  as  to  keep  it  off 
the  subject  until  the  exposure  is  to  be  made. 
This  is  done  in  a  variety  of  ways  by  different 
workers. 

Some  years  ago,  when  Messrs.  Bull  and  Pizon 
of  the  Marey  Institute  were  engaged  in  the  micro- 
cinema  study  of  a  colony  of  marine  organisms, 
they  adopted  the  apparatus  and  method  of 
arrangement  shown  in  the  illustration  facing 
p.  164.  The  microscope  C  was  attached  to  the 
cinematograph  B  which  was  driven  by  the 
clock  A.  In  this  case  it  was  only  necessary  to 
make  exposures  at  relatively  long  intervals,  and 
to  continue  them  through  several  days  and 
nights,  so  as  to  obtain  a  complete  cycle  of  the 
phases  of  the  development  of  the  organisms. 
Consequently  the  clock  was  introduced  in  order 
to  make  the  exposures  at  the  right  intervals. 

The  organisms  were  placed  in  a  small  flat 
glass  tank  or  vessel  D,  and  were  illuminated 


166    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

by  the  light  from  an  incandescent  gas  burner. 
As  it  was  unnecessary  to  keep  the  burner  alight 
during  the  periods  when  the  shutter  was  closed, 
Messrs.  Bull  and  Pizon  introduced  a  means  of 
turning  the  light  up  and  down.  This  was 
effected  by  a  small  electric  magnet,  working  in 
synchrony  with  the  clock  and  controlling  the  light 
so  that  the  subject  was  illuminated  only  during 
exposure. 

As  the  studies  were  prolonged  it  was  essential 
that  the  water  in  which  the  organisms  were 
placed  should  be  kept  fresh  and  sweet.  A  glass 
jar  F  was  introduced  to  serve  as  a  reservoir, 
and  from  this  a  tube  extended  to  the  vessel  D. 
A  constant  flow  of  water  was  thus  provided.  Its 
circulation  was  ensured  by  another  glass  tube 
extending  from  the  vessel  P  to  the  waste.  The 
flow  of  water  was  controlled  to  a  nicety  by 
means  of  a  tap  without  the  production  of  bubbles 
or  any  other  disturbance  in  the  vessel  D.  In 
this  manner  the  colony  was  preserved  to  the  best 
advantage  and  in  full  activity.  Some  such  system 
of  circulation  is  necessary  in  all  cases  where  the 
investigations  are  to  last  a  long  time. 

In  recent  years  the  Marey  Institute  has  much 
improved  its  micro-cinematographic  apparatus. 
The  microscope  is  now  carried  in  a  vertical 
position  in  front  of  the  support  which  holds 
the  camera.  The  camera  is  fitted  with  an 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         167 

external  bellows  which  carries  a  prism  at  its 
outer  extremity.  The  prism  is  brought  over  the 
eye-piece  of  the  microscope.  The  rays  of  light 
striking  the  turning  mirror  on  the  base  of  the 
microscope  are  projected  upwards  through  the 
object  side  or  vessel  and  then  through  the  eye- 
piece to  the  prism.  Here  the  rays  are  bent  at 
right  angles,  and  are  thus  directed  upon  the 
travelling  film  in  the  camera.  The  camera  is 
driven  electrically,  the  motor  being  mounted 
within  the  box  forming  the  base.  Mechanism 
is  introduced  whereby  the  number  of  photographs 
per  second  may  be  varied  within  wide  limits. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  this  apparatus 
is  the  means  adopted  to  enable  the  worker  to 
follow  the  movements  of  the  object  so  that  the 
camera  can  be  stopped  when  they  are  of  no 
moment  or  are  not  sufficiently  near  the  centre 
of  the  picture.  A  small  proportion  of  the  light 
rays  which  have  passed  through  the  microscope 
are  deflected  from  the  prism  mounted  upon  the 
eye-piece  and  thrown  into  a  small  view  finder 
beside  the  camera.  Looking  into  this  view  finder 
one  can  see  exactly  what  is  happening  upon  the 
stage  of  the  microscope.  This  novel  attachment 
enables  the  waste  of  film  to  be  reduced  to  almost 
nothing. 

The  character  of  the  illuminant  also  can  be 
varied.  Sunlight  may  be  caught  by  the  mirror 


i68    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

of  the  microscope  and  projected  through  the 
instrument  as  well  as  the  beam  from  an  electric 
light,  incandescent  gas  burner,  or  what  not.  With 
this  effective  and  compact  apparatus  many  marvel- 
lous microscopic  experiments  have  been  carried 
out  at  the  Institute,  such  as  the  filming  of  the 
heart-beats  of  minute  insects,  and  so  forth.  One 
very  fascinating  investigation  was  that  carried 
out  by  Dr.  J.  Ries,  of  Switzerland,  whereby  he 
secured  a  cinematographic  record  of  the  different 
phases  of  the  union  of  the  sperm  and  the  egg,  as 
well  as  the  separation  of  the  membrane  and 
segmentation  of  the  sea  urchin.  The  difficulties 
of  such  a  delicate  study  were  extreme,  but  the 
films  obtained  were  of  the  utmost  interest.  They 
enabled  the  investigator  to  reconstruct  upon  the 
screen  the  complete  phenomenon  of  fecundation. 
For  this  study  the  subject  had  to  be  photographed 
while  immersed  in  a  small  vessel  containing 
artificially  prepared  sea-water,  which  was  re- 
newed as  required.  The  clock  control  enabled 
the  camera  mechanism  to  be  so  turned  as  to 
secure  a  regular  series  of  exposures  at  the  rate 
of  seven  per  minute. 

When  Dr.  Jean  Comandon  set  himself  to  cine- 
matograph the  most  minute  microbes,  which  are 
so  small  that  two  million  may  be  found  in  a  cube 
measuring  only  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch,  he 
appreciated  the  limitations  of  the  ordinary  micro- 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         169 

scope,  and  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  images 
clearly  and  distinctly  therewith.  So  he  resorted  to 
the  ultra-microscope.  With  this  instrument  the 
light  is  not  thrown  directly  through  the  slide 
containing  the  object,  but  is  directed  upon  it  by 
reflection  from  a  light  which  stands  at  one  side. 
Beneath  the  object  to  be  examined  is  placed  a  glass 
prism,  or  condenser,  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
optical  axis  of  the  microscope,  the  result  being  that 
the  light  enters  the  slide  through  the  edge.  The 
objects  under  examination,  instead  of  appearing 
as  dark  objects  against  a  luminous  ground  as 
in  the  direct  transmission  of  the  light,  appear 
luminous  in  themselves  and  stand  out  as  bright 
spots  against  a  dark  background.  By  the  aid  of 
this  instrument,  particles  which  are  beyond  the 
scope  of  vision  with  the  highest  powered  micro- 
scopes may  be  seen  with  ease. 

Thus  this  French  investigator  was  able  to 
photograph  even  the  most  minute  organisms. 
The  well-known  firm  of  Pathe  Freres  placed 
their  laboratory  and  resources  at  his  disposal, 
so  that  the  work  might  be  done  under  the  most 
favourable  conditions.  Even  then  two  years 
passed  before  a  successful  detailed  film  was 
obtained,  and  an  apparatus  made  perfect  for  this 
class  of  work. 

The  complete  apparatus  is  set  upon  a  massive 
bench,  so  as  to  secure  absolute  rigidity,  because 


i;o    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

vibrations  are  fatal  to  good  results.  Slight 
modifications  are  sometimes  needed,  but  in  most 
cases  the  same  appliances  are  used,  and  in  the 
same  way.  The  light  is  furnished  from  a  3O-ampere 
electric  arc  lamp.  In  front  of  this  is  arranged 
a  series  of  lenses  for  concentrating  and  varying 
the  rays,  while  all  excess  of  luminosity  is  cut  off 
from  the  microscope  by  means  of  a  diaphragm. 
The  microscope  itself  is  set  horizontally,  with  its 
longitudinal  optical  axis  in  line  with  that  of  the 
camera,  and  its  eye-piece  brought  against  the 
camera  lens.  The  camera  is  one  of  the  Pathe 
models  with  detachable  dark-boxes. 

The  ray  of  light  thrown  from  the  electric  lamp 
is  concentrated  and  then  falls  upon  the  micro- 
scope condenser,  which  deflects  it  so  that  the 
objects  under  study  become  illuminated,  no  light 
entering  the  tube  of  the  microscope.  The  camera 
may  be  turned  by  hand,  or  by  a  small  electric 
motor,  the  latter  giving  an  improved  rotary 
motion  with  the  least  possible  vibration. 

One  of  the  difficulties  which  harassed  all  the 
early  efforts  in  micro-cinematography  was  the 
control  of  the  light  so  that  the  subjects  might 
not  be  killed  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  con- 
centrated rays.  At  first  an  investigation  could 
not  be  continued  for  more  than  a  second  or  two, 
because  the  microbes  were  killed  by  th£  heat. 
Seeing  that  the  pictures  were  taken  at  the  rate 


35  5 


1  gl 

ill 


Hi 


.    _ 

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~:  — 


By  permission  of 


Pathe  Freres. 


ONF    OF    Du.    COMANDON'S    GALVANIC 
EXPERIMENTS  WITH  PARAMCECIA. 

Under  the  action  of  electric  current 
the  organisms  perform  strange  evolu- 
tions. 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         171 

of  sixteen  per  second,  an  intermittent  lighting 
system  in  synchrony  with  the  opening  of  the 
lens  was  difficult  to  obtain,  as  there  was  the  risk 
that  the  maximum  illumination  might  not  be 
thrown  upon  the  subject  at  the  precise  fraction 
of  a  second  during  which  the  lens  was  open. 
Many  ingenious  expedients  were  tested  to  remove 
this  disability,  but  without  success,  until  at  last 
Dr.  Comandon  conceived  the  idea  of  introducing 
a  rotary  shutter,  similar  to  that  fitted  to  the 
camera  itself.  This  was  tried,  the  shutter  being 
placed  between  the  condensers  and  the  stage  on 
which  the  objects  were  set  up.  This  shutter  was 
revolved  by  the  same  mechanism  as  drove  the 
camera  shutter,  and  was  so  timed  that  the  opaque 
sector  interrupted  the  ray  of  light  at  the  same 
moment  as  the  camera  shutter  eclipsed  the  lens. 
In  this  way  the  microbes  were  protected  from 
the  heat  of  the  light  while  the  lens  was  closed, 
and  it  was  possible  to  keep  them  alive  and  in  full 
activity  in  the  slide  for  a  considerable  time. 
Repeated  experiments  suggested  improvements 
in  this  shutter,  and  now  the  scientists  employ  one 
in  which  there  are  two  or  three  opaque  sectors 
of  equal  area  spaced  equidistantly,  so  that  only 
a  flash  of  light  is  thrown  upon  the  microbes  at 
the  instant  of  exposure.  Still  further  to  lessen 
the  evils  of  the  heat  a  water  condenser  has  been 
introduced  between  two  of  the  glass  condensers 


i;2     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

placed  near  the  lamp.  This  is  a  small  circular 
vessel  like  a  big  lens.  It  is  filled  with  cold 
water  and  provided  with  the  means  to  remove 
the  ill  effects  of  bubbling  when  the  temperature 
rises  to  boiling  point.  The  system  is  very  much 
the  same  as  that  adopted  by  the  Lumiere  Brothers 
when  they  first  used  the  electric  arc  for  the 
purpose  of  projection  and  with  the  same  object — 
to  protect  the  inflammable  celluloid  film  from  the 
heat  radiated  by  the  light. 

With  this  ingenious  and  simplified  apparatus 
Dr.  Comandon  has  prepared  some  very  remarkable 
films  which  have  served  to  introduce  the  picture 
palace  patrons  as  well  as  the  scientists  to  phases 
of  life  about  which  little  was  formerly  known. 
When  thrown  upon  the  screen  the  subject  in 
some  cases  is  magnified  as  many  as  fifty  thousand 
times,  so  that  the  infinitesimal  organisms  stand 
up  as  large  as  dinner  plates  and  their  movements 
and  structure  and  habits  can  easily  be  followed 
by  the  eye. 

When  the  earliest  films  prepared  by  Dr. 
Comandon  were  shown  by  Dr.  Dastre,  of  the 
Sorbonne,  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
it  was  immediately  realised  that  this  was  a  new 
and  reliable  means  of  studying  bacteria,  and  that 
many  questions  which  heretofore  had  proved 
utterly  unanswerable  could  now  be  solved  with 
ease  and  precision.  A  little  later  the  films  were 


MICRO-CINEMATOGRAPHY         173 

introduced  to  the  public,  and  although  it  was 
feared  that  they  would  prove  of  only  fleeting 
interest  to  the  man  in  the  street  they  have  really 
interested  him  almost  as  deeply  as  the  scientists. 
Good  films  of  bacteria  never  fail  to  please  a 
picture  palace  audience. 

At  present  the  preparation  of  these  films  is 
confined  to  a  very  small  band  of  investigators. 
So  far  as  bacteriology  is  concerned  it  is  expert 
work,  but  there  are  many  applications  within 
the  reach  of  the  average  microscopist.  Cinema- 
tography has  been  of  use  in  spreading  the 
knowledge  of  the  facts  of  health  and  hygiene, 
and  now  that  there  are  propagandist  movements 
on  these  subjects  the  aid  of  the  living  pictures 
will  be  more  than  ever  appreciated. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  I  HOW  INCREASED  WORKSHOP 
EFFICIENCY  IS  OBTAINABLE  WITH  MOVING 
PICTURES 

IN  these  days  of  competition  it  is  obvious  that 
the  establishment  in  which  the  machinery  is 
most  efficient,  the  workmen  most  skilful,  and 
the  labour  most  economically  expended  has  the 
best  chance  of  success  in  its  particular  line  of 
business.  These  are  the  days  of  scientific 
organisation  and  management,  the  value  of  which, 
developed  upon  rational  lines,  cannot  be  denied. 

But  it  has  remained  for  the  cinematograph  to 
indicate  the  true  lines  along  which  such  develop- 
ments should  be  continued.  For  instance,  there 
may  be  two  workmen  of  equal  skill  and  industry, 
each  of  whom  is  given  an  identical  job.  One 
completes  his  task  in  less  time  than  the  other, 
although  the  two  men  are  admittedly  of  equal 
ability.  They  may  be  checked  from  stage  to 
stage  by  the  stop-watch,  but  this  will  reveal 
nothing  conclusive,  as  the  advantage  from  stage 
to  stage  will  fluctuate  between  the  two.  It  is 
only  in  the  aggregate  that  the  superiority  of  the 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  175 

one  over  the  other  is  seen.  The  superiority  may 
be  so  slight  as  to  be  almost  negligible,  but  the 
fact  that  it  exists  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  there 
is  something  wrong  somewhere. 

Where  is  it?  How  can  it  be  detected? 
Hitherto  scientific  management  and  stop-watch 
methods  have  been  found  wanting.  The  riddle 
can  be  solved  in  one  way  only,  as  investigations 
have  shown,  and  that  is  by  moving  pictures. 

This  new  phase  of  scientific  management  has 
been  evolved  and  perfected  by  Mr.  Frank  B. 
Gilbreth,  of  New  York,  an  eminent  authority 
upon  the  subject  of  workshop  organisation.  He 
has  given  it  the  title  of  "  Micro-Motion  Study." 
As  the  name  implies  it  concerns  the  investigation 
of  small  movements  by  the  ordinary  standard 
cinematograph  and  the  time  measurement  of 
each  action. 

While  this  particular  line  of  study  may  not  be 
entirely  new,  since  Marey  and  his  contemporaries 
in  the  study  of  movement  indicated  such  a 
possible  application,  yet  Mr.  Gilbreth  is  the 
first  to  reduce  it  to  a  science.  Therefore  he  is 
justly  entitled  to  the  credit  of  perfecting  this 
most  important  development  of  scientific  manage- 
ment. 

Everything  depends  upon  the  timing  mechan- 
ism. This  must  be  of  the  simplest  type  and  of 
unimpeachable  accuracy.  In  a  previous  chapter 


i;6    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

I  have  described  the  "  chronoscope  "  which  was 
used  by  Marey.  Mr.  Gilbreth,  for  the  purposes 
of  his  work,  has  evolved  a  clock  working  upon 
a  similar  principle.  This  clock,  fitted  with  one 
hand,  is  designed  to  make  one  complete  revolu- 
tion in  six  seconds.  The  indications  on  its  dial  are 
as  follows  :  The  larger  divisions  represent  tenths 
of  a  revolution.  Each  of  these  is  divided  into 
two,  thereby  showing  twentieths  of  a  revolution, 
and  these  latter  are  further  sub-divided  into 
fifths,  so  that  the  dial  is  divided  into  one  hundred 
parts.  Each  of  these  divisions  represents  the 
thousandth  part  of  a  minute,  while  the  clock 
can  be  read  easily  to  half-thousandths  of  a 
minute. 

This  clock,  together  with  one  of  the  ordinary 
type,  is  used  in  each  investigation.  Both  are 
prominently  displayed  in  the  image  so  that 
the  time  interval  from  picture  to  picture  may 
be  determined  exactly.  The  ordinary  clock  is 
necessary,  as  it  shows  the  total  time  occupied  in 
an  operation.  The  special  clock,  on  the  other 
hand,  serves  for  timing  the  different  stages  or 
motions  involved  in  completing  the  task. 

The  principle  may  be  utilised  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  as  has  been  proved  at  the  works  of  the 
New  England  Butt  Company  of  Providence, 
Rhode  Island.  The  manager  of  this  concern, 
Mr.  J.  G.  Aldrich,  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognise 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  177 

the  value  and  possibilities  of  micro-motion 
study. 

It  is  an  establishment  devoted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  machinery  for  making  braiding,  such 
as  trimmings  for  ladies'  dresses,  and  so  forth. 
The  machines  are  built  for  the  most  part  from 
small  light  castings,  which  are  machined  only 
slightly,  but  which  must  fit  together  without  the 
necessity  of  filing  or  finicking  hand-work.  In 
order  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  factory 
and  incidentally  to  augment  its  output  and  profit, 
experts  were  called  in  from  time  to  time  to  say 
where  modifications  of  process  might  reduce 
the  manufacturing  costs.  Different  operations 
in  the  assembling  of  the  pieces  were  timed.  The 
result  was  the  discovery  of  more  expeditious 
methods  of  putting  the  pieces  together.  Such 
time-study  investigations  also  supplied  a  basis 
for  computing  the  various  scales  and  systems  of 
payment  for  work  done. 

Notwithstanding  the  high  pitch  of  efficiency 
to  which  the  factory  was  brought  by  these 
methods,  Mr.  Aldrich  felt  convinced  that-  still 
further  speeding-up  might  be  accomplished 
without  over-driving  the  men.  So  he  called  in 
Mr.  Gilbreth  and  his  cinematographic  method. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  highest  results,  the  most 
expert  workman  was  taken  as  the  subject  of  the 
experiment. 

p.c.  N 


i;8    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

In  one  corner  of  the  assembling  room  the  wall 
and  floor  were  marked  off  into  four-inch  squares. 
In  this  space  was  placed  the  bench,  together 
with  the  sets  of  component  parts.  Here  there 
was  a  slight  divergence  from  the  existing 
practice  in  the  factory.  Instead  of  taking  the 
pieces  from  various  boxes,  packets  of  parts  were 
placed  in  convenient  positions  upon  a  rack. 
These  were  placed  in  the  proper  sequence,  so 
that  the  workman  was  saved  the  task  of  thinking 
when  selecting  the  successive  pieces.  He  was 
able  to  take  them  up  quickly  and  correctly  in  a 
mechanical  kind  of  way. 

The  timing  clocks  were  placed  in  a  prominent 
position  facing  the  camera,  and  when  all  was 
ready,  the  workman  was  given  the  word  to  start. 
The  whole  operation  of  fitting  the  pieces  of  a 
machine  together  were  filmed  in  this  manner  so 
as  to  give  a  complete  cinematographic  record  of 
the  assembling  of  a  machine. 

Now  in  micro-motion  study  the  films  are 
not  intended  for  projection.  Instead  of  being 
screened,  the  pictures  are  studied  with  the  aid  of 
a  magnifying  glass,  the  motion  in  each  picture 
being  closely  examined  to  detect  whether  it  is 
essential  to  the  task,  whether  it  might  be 
eliminated,  or  shortened.  As  the  wall  and  floor 
are  marked  off  into  four-inch  squares,  the  investi- 
gator is  enabled  to  ascertain  the  precise  length 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  179 

of  each  movement  in  picking  up  and  fitting 
the  parts.  At  the  same  time,  such  marking-off 
enables  the  expert  to  see  whether  the  bench 
and  rack  of  packets  containing  the  component 
parts  of  the  machine  are  disposed  most  advan- 
tageously in  relation  to  the  mechanic,  and  also 
whether  the  latter  stands  in  the  most  convenient 
position  before  his  work,  to  fulfil  his  task  in  the 
shortest  possible  time  and  with  the  minimum  of 
physical  effort. 

As  might  be  supposed,  the  individual  study  of 
each  picture  in  a  film  together  with  the  following 
and  timing  of  each  elementary  motion  is  a  tedious 
task  for  the  expert.  This  may  be  realised  when 
it  is  pointed  out  that  the  time  interval  for  each 
picture  is  only  ^r  part  of  a  second.  But  the 
labour  is  not  wasted.  The  searching  analysis 
is  sure  to  reveal  where  a  movement  may  be 
accelerated  here,  or  eased  there,  why  it  would 
be  preferable  to  set  the  rack  in  this  position, 
or  why  it  would  be  better  if  the  mechanic  faced 
his  work  in  such  and  such  a  way.  This  is  the 
sole  object  of  micro-motion  study.  Nothing 
rivals  the  cinematograph  for  picking  a  movement 
relentlessly  to  pieces. 

The  most  expert  workman  is  taken  for  the 
purpose  of  the  investigation  because  his  skill 
must  be  dependent  upon  his  ability  to  reduce 
movements  to  the  minimum.  Moreover,  he 

N  2 


1 8o    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

serves  as  an  excellent  model  for  speeding-up 
if  such  is  required.  By  the  time  his  workman- 
ship has  been  analysed  and  perfected  by  the 
elimination  of  all  waste  or  unnecessary  motions, 
and  by  his  mastery  of  the  best  methods,  the 
photographing  in  animation  of  his  experience 
serves  as  a  pattern  for  the  benefit  of  all  in  the 
factory. 

Some  remarkable  results  have  been  accom- 
plished by  this  new  phase  in  scientific  manage- 
ment. In  the  above-mentioned  braiding  factory 
the  analysis  of  the  movements  incidental  to  a 
particular  operation  enabled  the  time  occupied 
upon  one  task  to  be  reduced  from  37$  to  8| 
minutes.  In  other  words,  the  workman  was 
able  to  perform  more  than  four  times  his 
previous  volume  of  work  in  an  eight-hour  day 
after  his  motions  had  been  analysed  by  the 
cinematograph.  Nor  is  he  driven  harder  to 
achieve  this  end :  he  is  able  to  do  it  because  all 
waste  motions  have  been  eliminated. 

The  great  value  of  micro-motion  study  is  that  it 
facilitates  the  transmission  of  skill  from  man  to 
record.  It  provides  a  reliable  way  of  transferring 
experience  from  a  man  who  has  gained  it  to  one 
who  has  never  had  it.  It  acts  as  a  check  upon 
the  work.  The  establishment  is  provided  with  an 
unassailable  record  of  the  time  occupied  through- 
out every  department,  and  consequently  holds 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  181 

a  complete  check  upon  the  skill  and  capacity  ol 
every  man.  If  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  output, 
showing  slackness  to  exist  somewhere,  it  can  be 
traced  before  material  damage  is  inflicted.  Every 
workman  is  kept  up  to  concert  pitch,  and  the 
maximum  work  per  man  is  obtained  without 
resort  to  driving  or  rushing. 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  applications  of  micro- 
motion  study.  Obviously,  although  the  best 
efforts  of  every  man  are  required,  it  is  essential 
that  the  records  should  be  taken  under  normal 
conditions,  so  as  to  provide  a  fair  basis.  To 
introduce  special  arrangements  for  the  test  is  to 
destroy  the  value  of  the  investigations,  because 
the  other  men  will  retort  that  they  cannot  equal 
the  performance  unless  they  have  the  same 
facilities. 

The  workmen  are  never  permitted  to  see  the 
moving-picture  record  of  their  work.  Neither 
are  they  shown  contrasting  views  of  how  and  how 
not  to  do  a  thing.  The  pictures  are  merely  for 
the  use  of  the  investigator.  When  it  is  necessary 
to  communicate  the  results  of  an  experiment  to 
the  workman,  he  is  given  no  opportunity  for 
argument.  He  is  merely  told  how  to  do  this  or 
that,  according  to  the  experience  gathered  from 
an  intimate  study  of  the  photographic  record. 

This  application  of  the  cinematograph  has  been 
developed  also  for  the  benefit  of  apprentices.  A 


182    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

youth  who  is  trained  on  the  correct  lines  from 
the  very  commencement  of  his  duties  has  the 
best  chance  of  becoming  an  expert  workman,  and 
for  him  the  use  of  micro-motion  study  is  in- 
valuable. He  can  be  taken  through  every 
separate  motion  step  by  step,  the  film  used  for 
this  purpose  being  that  of  the  most  perfectly 
skilled  man.  Experience  has  shown,  moreover, 
that  a  youth  can  learn  his  craft  more  quickly  and 
intelligently  by  following  it  upon  the  screen  than 
by  being  brought  face  to  face  with  the  actual 
work  at  the  bench.  He  appears  to  concentrate 
his  attention  better  upon  the  moving-picture 
lesson  than  upon  the  practical  demonstration, 
although  in  both  cases  the  appeal  is  made  to  the 
eye. 

There  is  yet  another  valuable  aspect  of  this 
work.  Enterprising  and  ingenious  men  are 
constantly  devising  improved  processes  in  factory 
equipment.  At  times  their  revolutionary  ideas 
are  put  into  practice  before  they  are  thoroughly 
understood,  and  the  result  is  far  from  satisfactory. 
The  improvement  proves  to  be  more  imaginary 
than  real.  But  if  recourse  is  first  had  to  the 
cinematograph,  the  process  can  be  submitted  to  a 
searching  practical  trial  before  it  is  installed.  A 
film  can  be  taken  and  each  separate  image  can  be 
examined  minutely  with  the  aid  of  the  magnifying 
glass,  until  a  pretty  complete  idea  is  gained  as  to 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY:  FILMS  SHOWING  HOW  A  MAN'S  Wo  UK   is 

ANALYSED    BY    MOVING    PlCTfRKS. 

These  pictures  are  not  thrown  on  the  screen,  but  are  examined  by 
a  magnifying  glass. 

(1)  Film  of  workman  assembling  machine,  showing  Gilbreth  clock 
and  ordinary  timepiece  alongside. 

(2)  Film  of  rack  and  bench,  floor  marked  off  into  ^-inch  squares, 
and  Gilbreth  clock, 


MICRO-MOTION  STUDY  183 

the  true  value  of  the  invention.  The  pictorial 
time  record  can  be  compared  with  the  best 
results  secured  under  the  existing  practice,  and 
the  manufacturer  can  ascertain  what  economies 
the  new  plan  will  effect  before  a  penny  is  ex- 
pended, or  the  working  of  his  factory  dis- 
organised by  the  alteration. 

Micro-motion  study  by  the  aid  of  the  cine- 
matograph is  still  in  its  infancy.  But  it  appears 
to  have  a  wide  field  of  utility.  The  pictures  can 
be  taken  at  any  desired  speed,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  work  photographed,  but  as  a  rule 
sixteen  pictures  per  second  will  suffice.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  in  this  case  the  record  is  not 
obtained  for  the  purpose  of  studying  movement 
from  the  scientific  or  physiological  point  of  view, 
as  with  Marey's  investigations,  but  purely  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  whether  certain  motions 
are  necessary  to  certain  tasks.  Obviously  the 
expert  engaged  in  this  work  must  possess  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  movement  so  as  to  be  able 
to  follow  the  motions  closely  and  accurately 
through  their  natural  cycles,  and  must  also  be 
familiar  with  the  work  of  the  factory  so  as  to  tell 
whether  a  man  is  working  to  the  best  advantage. 
This  faculty  alone  demands  a  long  apprenticeship, 
for  experience  is  the  only  guide.  Mr.  Frank  B. 
Gilbreth,  who  has  brought  micro-motion  study 
prominently  before  the  public,  has  devoted  years 


1 84    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

to  the  subject.  He  has  become  an  unique 
authority  upon  it.  Now  that  its  advantages  are 
appreciated,  one  may  expect  it  to  fill  an  even 
wider  space  in  industrial  life,  and  to  be  applied  in 
many  directions  that  are  as  yet  undreamed  of. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE     MOTION     PICTURE     AS    AN    AID    TO    SCIENTIFIC 
INVESTIGATION 

RAPID  strides  are  being  made  in  the  utilisation 
of  animated  photography  as  an  aid  to  scientific 
investigation.  It  is  a  development  useful  in  all 
fields  of  research  where  phenomena  can  be 
recorded  in  pictorial  form.  Dr.  E.  J.  Marey,  the 
eminent  French  scientist,  was  the  pioneer  in  this 
work.  One  has  only  to  peruse  his  classic  work 
"  Movement  "  l  to  realise  the  comprehensive 
nature  of  his  studies.  So  thoroughly  did  he 
cover  the  ground  ofchronophotography,as  it  was 
then  called,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  where 
any  new  application  of  the  motion  picture  can 
now  be  made. 

The  Aurora  Borealis  always  has  been  a  subject 
fascinating  to  scientists.  Numerous  papers  and 
brochures  have  been  written  about  it,  and  many 
elaborate  drawings  have  been  prepared  to  convey 
some  idea  of  its  characteristics  and  its  kaleido- 
scopic changes.  The  drawings,  however,  fail  to 

»  "  Movement,"  by  E.  J.  Marey.    Heinemann,  75.  6rf. 


186    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

convince,  and  even  the  few  still-life  photographs 
which  have  been  taken  are  uneventful. 

Realising  this  deficiency  a  Danish  professor  is 
striving  to  record  the  Aurora  Borealis  in  motion 
upon  the  celluloid  film.  A  special  camera  has 
been  designed  for  his  work,  and  with  this  it  is 
intended  to  snap  the  phenomena  from  a  con- 
venient northern  point  such  as  Spitzbergen  or 
Greenland,  not  only  for  the  benefit  of  the 
scientific  world  but  also  for  the  general  public 
which  entertains  only  a  hazy  conception  of  the 
"  Northern  Lights."  It  need  hardly  be  said  that 
if  this  investigator  should  succeed  in  his  difficult 
quest  he  will  reveal  upon  the  screen  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  wonders  of  the  world.  While 
the  marvellous  and  weird  colouring  effects  will 
be  missing,  the  curtains  of  light  that  drape  the 
sky,  and  the  strange  luminous  shafts  and  glares 
which  light  the  heavens,  should  provide  a  film 
of  intense  interest  and  fascination. 

The  moving-picture  camera  is  also  being 
applied  to  the  recording  of  solar  eclipses  with 
a  view  to  obtaining  a  more  impressionistic  and 
intimate  idea  of  the  activity  and  extent  of  the 
flames  which  shoot  from  the  surface  of  the  sun. 
Wonderful  still-life  pictures  of  these  effects  have 
been  taken,  and  it  is  only  fair  to  assume  that  they 
should  be  capable  of  being  caught  by  the  motion- 
picture  camera.  Efforts  are  also  being  made  to 


SCIENTIFIC   INVESTIGATION       187 

secure  photographs  of  the  heavens,  but  the  diffi- 
culties are  very  great.  The  long  exposure  re- 
quired in  this  case  is  a  heavy  drawback,  but 
seeing  that  the  slowest  movements  of  Nature 
can  be  recorded  by  the  cinematograph,  and  may 
be  speeded  up  in  projection  to  convey  the  effect 
of  animation,  there  is  no  reason  why  similar 
moving  pictures  of  other  worlds  should  not  be 
obtained  by  combining  the  moving-picture  camera 
with  the  telescope.  The  moon  followed  through 
its  phases  would  yield  an  interesting  study,  and, 
incidentally,  a  film  of  this  character  would  possess 
considerable  educational  value. 

At  the  present  moment  great  activity  is  being 
manifested  in  the  application  of  the  cinematograph 
to  mechanics.  Two  Sheffield  investigators  have 
designed  a  steel-testing  machine  to  which  is 
attached  a  microscope  and  a  cinematograph 
camera.  The  piece  of  steel  to  be  tested  is  placed 
in  the  machine  and  the  cinematograph  is  set  in 
motion.  By  throwing  the  resulting  pictures  upon 
the  screen  it  is  possible  to  follow  exactly  what 
takes  place  in  the  molecular  construction  of  the 
steel  while  it  is  under  test. 

The  idea  has  been  applied  to  many  other 
phases  of  mechanics  with  equal  success,  and 
there  have  been  many  discoveries  of  a  technical 
nature  which  have  had  their  effect  upon  manu- 
facturing processes. 


i88    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

Another  series  of  technical  experiments  was 
carried  out  by  Dr.  Otto  Fiichs,  professor  of  engi- 
neering at  the  German  Technical  High  School 
of  BrQnn.  The  purpose  was  to  elucidate  some 
hitherto  obscure  points  in  connection  with  the 
working  of  steam  hammers.  Investigations  in 
this  field  have  hitherto  proceeded  on  the  graphic 
principle,  the  results  being  recorded  by  a  stylo 
continually  travelling  over  calibrated  paper.  It 
is  admitted  that  this  system  leaves  much  to  be 
desired  because  the  stylo  is  not  sufficiently 
sensitive,  and  fails  to  record  many  of  the  smaller 
and  more  important  movements.  Accordingly, 
Dr.  Fttchs  conceived  the  idea  of  using  the  moving- 
picture  camera  in  the  anticipation  that  much 
missing  data  might  thus  be  discovered. 

A  special  apparatus  was  designed.  In  reality  it 
is  an  ingenious  combination  of  the  moving-picture 
camera  and  the  graphic  method.  There  is  a 
paper  tape  that  passes  continuously  over  two 
rollers  and  has  two  stylos  constantly  bearing  on 
it.  These  stylos  are  connected  with  two  indi- 
cators attached  to  the  sides  of  the  cylinder  of 
the  steam  hammer,  and  they  supply  a  continuous 
record  of  the  steam  pressure.  The  paper  tape  is 
moved  by  an  electrically-driven  gear,  while  time 
intervals  are  indicated  by  means  of  clockwork 
mechanism.  So  much  for  the  graphic  portion. 

What  the  cinematographic  portion  supplies  is 


By  courteous  permission  of  Dr.  Otto  Fiichs. 

MOVING-PICTURES  OF  A  STEAM  HAMMER  RAM. 

An  illuminated  index  attached  to  the  ram  moves  over  a  graduated  scale, 
while  an  illuminated  clock  indicates  the  lapse  of  time. 


O   as 

>   3 

o  --- 


o  _ 

£  < 


SCIENTIFIC  INVESTIGATION       189 

a  continuous  animated  record  of  the  movement 
of  the  ram  of  the  hammer.  Attached  to  the  ram 
is  an  index  which  moves  up  and  down  over  a 
scale  divided  into  centimetres.  Both  the  index 
and  the  scale  are  illuminated  so  that  the  result 
given  by  the  camera  shows  a  series  of  photo- 
graphic images  of  the  oscillating  motion.  Above 
the  illuminated  finger  and  scale  is  a  clock  similar 
to  Marey's  chronoscope  and  Gilbreth's  time- 
piece, driven  by  clockwork,  and  in  synchrony 
with  the  remainder  of  the  mechanism.  This 
scale  likewise  has  its  points  of  division 
illuminated.  Its  use  is  to  supply  the  time 
factor  without  which  such  experiments  are 
useless. 

The  ram,  the  index-finger,  the  scale  and  the 
clock  are  all  recorded  upon  the  film,  so  that  it 
is  possible  to  tell  the  varying  speeds  at  which 
the  ram  moves  throughout  its  travel.  The 
photographing  speed  may  be  varied  as  desired, 
and  as  a  different  position  is  caught  in  each 
picture,  the  distance  the  ram  travels  between  two 
successive  exposures,  together  with  the  time 
occupied  in  completing  the  cycle  of  movement, 
may  be  accurately  gauged.  The  combination  of 
the  paper  tape  recorder  with  the  photographic 
part  of  the  apparatus  affords  a  complete  record 
of  the  ram's  performance. 

The  results  are  naturally  of  a  severely  technical 


igo    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

character  and  of  interest  only  to  persons  con- 
cerned with  mechanics.  But  to  these  they  are 
very  important  indeed.  The  experiments  which 
have  been  completed  by  Dr.  Fiichs  have  thrown 
much  light  upon  a  difficult  engineering  problem. 
They  have  served  to  answer  questions  affecting 
the  design  of  the  hammer  and  its  most  economical 
efficient  operation  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  insoluble.  From  the  public  point  of  view 
the  films  possess  no  interest  whatever,  inasmuch 
as  the  subject  is  illuminated  and  photographed 
in  such  a  way  that  only  the  features  of  technical 
interest  are  brought  out  strongly  upon  the 
film. 

Another  interesting  and  profitable  province  of 
the  cinematograph  is  that  concerning  ballistics. 
This  has  been  worked  out  by  Monsieur  Lucien 
Bull  at  the  Marey  Institute  with  his  camera 
capable  of  taking  two  thousand  pictures  per 
second  under  the  illumination  of  the  electric 
spark.  While  this  investigator  did  not  apply  his 
invention  directly  to  ballistics  he  indicated  the 
manner  in  which  such  work  could  be  carried 
out.  The  success  of  his  experiments,  however, 
prompted  another  investigator  to  enter  the  field. 
This  was  Dr.  Cranz,  of  the  Berlin  Military 
Academy.  The  apparatus  this  professor  evolved 
has  been  devoted  exclusively  to  the  study  of  the 
flight  of  projectiles  and  to  photographing  the 


(I)  (2) 

FILMS    PREPARED    BY    PROFESSOR    CRANZ    WITH    HIS 
REMARKABLE  CAMERA. 

(1)  Moving-pictures  of  the  ejection  of  a  cartridge  from 
an  automatic  pistol. 

(2)  Motion  photographs  of  the  splintering  of  a  bone 
by  a  bullet. 


SCIENTIFIC  INVESTIGATION       191 

action  of  the  mechanism  of  the  magazine  type  of 
firearm. 

The  Cranz  apparatus  is  somewhat  more  com- 
plicated than  that  designed  by  Monsieur  Bull, 
though  the  fundamental  principle  of  operation 
is  the  same.  The  film,  resembling  an  endless 
belt,  is  passed  round  two  steel  cylinders,  one 
of  which  is  driven  by  an  electric  motor.  Images 
of  standard  size  are  produced  under  the  illumina- 
tion of  the  electric  spark,  which  concentrates 
the  maximum  amount  of  light  upon  the  moving 
object.  The  photograph  is  in  silhouette,  and 
the  disposition  of  the  apparatus  is  such  that  five 
hundred  consecutive  pictures  can  be  made  in 
one-tenth  of  a  second,  the  period  of  exposure 
varying  between  one-millionth  and  one-ten- 
millionth  of  a  second.  The  outstanding  feature 
of  the  installation  is  the  special  and  novel  type 
of  interrupter.  It  consists  of  a  pendulum  by 
which  the  sparking  is  started  before  the  projectile 
is  fired  and  made  to  continue  until  the  film  has 
been  exhausted. 

Some  of  the  results  obtained  by  this  apparatus 
are  very  remarkable.  When  the  films  are  pro- 
jected upon  the  screen  at  the  average  speed  of 
sixteen  pictures  per  second  the  flight  of  the 
bullet  can  be  followed  with  ease.  One  film 
shows  the  effect  of  a  bullet  striking  a  sus- 
pended india-rubber  ball  filled  with  water,  and 


192    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

brings  out  the  remarkable  formations  the  ball 
assumes  during  the  infinitesimal  part  of  a  second 
when  the  bullet  is  passing  through  it.  Another 
interesting  film  shows  the  effect  of  a  high  velocity 
bullet  striking  a  bone,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  bone  is  splintered  and  smashed  by 
the  force  of  the  impact  conveys  a  realistic 
impression  of  the  destructive  force  of  the  modern 
rifle  projectile.  The  deadliness  of  the  automatic 
pistol  is  well  known.  Since  seven  shots  may 
be  discharged  in  four  seconds,  the  movements 
of  the  mechanism  are  too  rapid  to  be  followed 
by  the  naked  eye.  Yet  by  means  of  the  Cranz 
apparatus  every  motion  is  caught,  and  the  whole 
is  slowed  down  in  projection  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  complete  cycle  of  the  firing  of  the  shot 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  cartridge,  which 
normally  occupies  only  a  fraction  of  a  second  to 
complete,  occupies  about  thirty  seconds  upon 
the  screen.  When  these  pictures  were  exhibited 
for  the  first  time  a  number  of  black  specks  were 
observed  to  accompany  the  expulsion  of  the 
spent  cartridge.  These  proved  to  be  grains 
of  powder  which  had  not  been  ignited.  Their 
existence  had  never  before  been  suspected,  and 
the  result  was  curious.  After  minute  examina- 
tion of  the  pictures  a  change  was  effected  in 
manufacture  of  the  cartridge  so  that  the  waste 
of  powder  through  non-ignition  should  be  reduced 


SCIENTIFIC   INVESTIGATION       193 

to  the  minimum.  The  success  achieved  in  this 
direction  was  shown  by  the  absence  of  non- 
ignited  grains  in  subsequent  pictures. 

Another  wonderful  series  of  moving  pictures 
was  prepared  by  an  American  ophthalmic 
surgeon.  He  embarked  upon  elaborate  re- 
searches to  gain  further  information  about  the 
eye  and  its  peculiarities  both  in  sickness  and 
in  health.  The  illumination  of  the  eye  was 
carried  out  very  cleverly,  so  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  brilliancy  without  causing 
fatigue  to  the  subject.  Accordingly  his  pictures 
were  absolutely  normal.  In  these  experiments 
glass  plates  were  used,  for  the  reason  that  they 
give  results  much  finer  and  more  detailed  than 
celluloid.  In  celluloid  the  grain  of  the  base  of 
the  film  is  apt  to  be  disturbing  to  very  fine 
studies.  In  this  way  a  great  deal  of  new 
information  was  gained.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  discoveries  was  that  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  organ  of  sight  is  far  greater  than 
was  previously  supposed,  and  that  the  eye  never 
is  absolutely  still,  even  when  commonly  regarded 
as  being  fixed  and  steady. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  uses  of 
the  cinematograph  in  medicine  have  been  much 
extended.  A  former  chapter  has  described  its  appli- 
cation to  the  study  of  microbic  life,  but  the  latest 
innovation  is  to  employ  it  in  the  operating  room. 

p.c,  o 


194    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

The  pages  of  the  medical  papers  are  filled  with 
reports  of  curious  and  unusual  surgical  opera- 
tions, but  mere  reports  are  necessarily  somewhat 
imperfect.  In  view  of  these  circumstances  it 
occurred  to  one  eminent  surgeon  that  a  cinemato- 
graphic record  would  form  a  first-class  supple- 
ment to  the  technical  description.  The  initial 
experiment  proved  a  complete  success,  and 
accordingly  the  practice  has  been  extended.  In 
this  direction  France,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  are  taking  a  very  active  part.  Films  of 
this  character  can  be  made  to  serve  two  useful 
purposes.  They  are  valuable  for  the  trans- 
mission of  practical  information  between  medical 
men  and  are  useful  in  the  lecture  room  among 
the  students.  Suppose  a  hospital  in  New  York 
has  a  strange  and  unusual  case  for  operation. 
Only  the  students  in  that  establishment  have 
the  opportunity  of  witnessing  it.  But  by  the 
aid  of  the  moving-picture  camera  and  a  lecture 
it  can  be  reproduced  in  photographic  animation 
upon  the  screen  for  the  benefit  of  medical 
graduates  in  the  various  hospitals  throughout 
the  world. 

In  research  work,  such  as  the  study  of  new 
and  unusual  diseases,  especially  those  of  a 
tropical  nature,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  con- 
tinuous record  of  a  subject  from  the  moment  of 
infection  through  the  various  stages  of  the 


SCIENTIFIC   INVESTIGATION       195 

malady.  For  instance,  in  the  study  of  sleeping 
sickness  in  Uganda,  Colonel  Bruce  had  formerly 
to  content  himself  with  a  graphic  record  or  chart 
of  the  fluctuations  of  a  patient's  condition,  with 
explanatory  notes  introduced  here  and  there 
when  a  sudden  change  in  the  temperature  or 
general  behaviour  of  the  patient  developed. 
With  the  cinematograph  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
a  pictorial  record  which  conveys  a  more  forceful 
and  exact  impression  of  the  symptoms.  An 
interesting  indication  of  what  could  be  done 
in  this  direction  was  the  film  prepared  by  Dr. 
Comandon.  He  used  a  monkey  for  his  subject, 
infecting  it  with  the  microbe  of  sleeping  sickness 
discovered  by  Colonel  Bruce.  The  effects  which 
the  bacteria  produced  upon  the  monkey  were 
admirably  illustrated,  together  with  the  changes 
that  various  remedies  wrought  in  its  condition. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  application  of  the  cine- 
matograph to  scientific  research  the  greatest 
strides  have  been  made  in  physiology.  This  was 
due  to  Marey's  enthusiasm  in  this  branch  of 
science,  and  the  establishment  of  the  Physiological 
Institute  in  Paris  where  such  investigations  were 
carried  out  upon  a  most  exhaustive  scale.  The 
results  of  Marey's  investigations  are  given  in 
several  volumes  and  in  hundreds  of  papers  which 
he  sent  to  the  various  French  scientific  societies. 
There  is  no  reason  why  the  contributions  of  the 

o  2 


196    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

cinematograph  to  physiological  knowledge  should 
not  be  equalled  in  other  branches  of  science.  Up 
to  the  present  the  investigation  of  scientific 
phenomena  with  the  aid  of  motion-pictures  has 
not  been  carried  far,  but  there  are  many  signs 
that  its  sphere  will  be  extended  in  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   MILITARY  VALUE  OF   THE  CINEMATOGRAPH 

AMONG  the  many  uses  of  the  cinematograph, 
frivolous  and  useful,  amusing  and  instructive, 
perhaps  none  has  proved  so  difficult  or  illusive 
as  the  attempt  to  apply  it  to  soldiering  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  marksmanship.  The  motion- 
picture  had  scarely  impressed  itself  upon  the 
public  when  the  war  departments  of  the  various 
powers  were  flooded  with  suggestions  and 
patents  for  its  employment  in  this  sphere. 
Needless  to  say  the  majority  of  these  ideas 
were  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  probably 
this  is  the  reason  why  the  animated  target 
has  not  been  seriously  taken  up  by  military 
authorities. 

Notwithstanding  the  many  disabilities  under 
which  the  cinematograph  labours,  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  it  has  real  practical  value  in  this 
field  up  to  a  certain  point.  It  is  able  to  induce 
the  recruit  to  aim  quickly  and  surely,  and  this  is 
to-day  recognised  as  being  the  governing  con- 
sideration whether  the  range  be  point-blank  or 
long-distance. 


198    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

One  of  the  first  practical  developments  in  this 
direction  was  that  perfected  by  Messrs.  Paterson 
and  Musgrave.  Their  wide  and  diversified 
experience  of  all  that  pertains  to  shooting  and 
targets  enabled  them  to  avoid  the  defects  of  the 
system,  which  to  many  experimenters  were  not 
apparent  owing  to  a  lack  of  knowledge. 

The  apparatus  and  method  of  operation  were 
very  simple.  The  target  consisted  of  an  endless 
roll  of  white  paper  which  served  as  the  screen, 
and  upon  which  the  pictures  were  projected  from 
a  point  near  the  firing  line.  A  self-recording 
system  was  incorporated  whereby  the  result  of  a 
shot  was  transmitted  back  to  the  firing  line  to 
inform  the  marksman  about  the  value  of  his  hit. 
As  the  paper  became  perforated  under  the  fusilade 
it  was  rolled  up.  The  most  important  feature  of 
this  invention  was  the  mechanism  placed  behind 
the  screen,  which  synchronised  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  objects  at  which  the  marksman 
aimed. 

In  cinematographic  projection,  however,  the 
throw  of  the  picture  cannot  be  extended  beyond 
certain  limits,  that  is,  if  a  clear  view  is  to  be 
presented  to  those  seated  farthest  away  from  the 
screen.  In  target  practice  this  is  a  serious 
disadvantage.  At  a  range  of  200  feet  marksman- 
ship would  be  almost  impossible,  owing  to  the 
indistinctness  of  the  image  upon  the  white  wall. 


MILITARY  VALUE  i9o 

At  that  distance  one  always  receives  an  im- 
pression of  flicker.  Why  this  should  be  so  is  not 
quite  apparent,  though  it  is  evidently  governed 
by  some  law  of  optics.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
that  a  picture  is  being  followed  from  a  distance  of 
200  feet,  and  a  straining  of  the  eyes  is  experienced. 
This  may  be  overcome  merely  by  looking  at  the 
screen  through  the  reverse  end  of  a  pair  of  field 
glasses.  As  is  well  known,  this  usually  makes 
the  object  appear  to  recede  to  a  great  distance, 
but  when  it  is  done  in  connection  with  moving 
pictures  it  makes  the  images  stand  out  more 
brilliantly  and  distinctly,  while  they  are  far 
steadier,  the  flickering  being  almost  entirely 
eliminated.  In  fact,  if  one  wishes  to  witness  a 
projection  to  the  best  advantage  with  the 
minimum  of  eye  fatigue,  this  is  the  way  to  do  it. 
It  is  obvious,  under  these  circumstances,  that 
the  distance  of  the  marksman  from  the  target  is 
restricted  somewhat  severely.  From  75  to 
loo  feet  is  considered  to  be  the  greatest  distance 
from  which  shooting  can  be  practised  to  ad- 
vantage. Since  the  modern  automatic  pistol  will 
carry  about  80  yards,  while  the  latest  types  of 
rifles  have  a  range  of  1,000  yards  or  more,  doubts 
may  be  raised  as  to  the  utility  of  the  cinemato- 
graph in  marksmanship.  In  the  Paterson- 
Musgrave  invention  an  ingenious  attempt  to 
overcome  this  disability  was  made  by  what 


200    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

might  be  termed  a  "range  compensation."  This 
end  was  achieved  by  making  the  figures  of 
varying  sizes,  according  to  their  distance  from 
the  marksman,  so  that  a  target  of  varying  size 
was  presented.  Thus  in  one  case  the  man  would 
appear  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture  and  be  of 
relatively  large  size,  corresponding  to  the  target 
he  would  offer  at  a  distance  of  100  yards.  Then 
he  would  be  shown  somewhat  smaller  to  represent 
500  yards,  and  so  on,  until  at  the  higher  distances 
he  offered  a  very  small  target  indeed. 

From  the  military  point  of  view  the  incidents 
were  made  as  exciting  as  possible,  and  closely 
analogous  to  actual  war  conditions.  As  a  case  in 
point,  the  man  on  the  screen  would  be  shown 
behind  cover,  and  aiming  directly  at  the  man  on 
the  firing  line.  His  movements  could  easily  be 
followed.  He  would  be  seen  to  expose  himself 
slightly  to  sight  his  rifle  and  then  to  fire.  The 
effect  upon  the  marksman  firing  at  the  target  was 
thrilling  in  its  apparent  realism,  because  he  un- 
consciously developed  the  feeling  that  he  had  got 
to  shoot  first,  and  straight,  or  he  would  be  hit. 
The  self-recording  system  enabled  him  to  judge 
whether  he  had  got  his  shot  well  home,  while  the 
judge  could  decide  whether  the  marksman  or 
the  photographic  enemy  had  fired  first. 

The  judicious  selection  of  subjects  for  portrayal 
upon  the  screen  undoubtedly  served  to  develop 


MILITARY  VALUE  201 

a  sense  of  smartness  among  the  marksmen.  A 
decided  improvement  in  quick-sighting  or  snap- 
shooting was  obtained  together  with  a  concentra- 
tion upon  the  work  in  hand. 

Projection  was  carried  out  upon  purely 
automatic  lines.  The  projector  was  set  working 
by  a  button  control  placed  at  the  firing  point,  and 
pressed  by  the  marksman  or  his  officer.  The 
instructor  or  officer  had  thus  a  complete  control 
over  the  whole  installation,  and  was  in  a  position 
to  make  sure  that  his  instructions  were  being 
followed,  as  well  as  being  able  to  tell  whether 
his  men  were  quick  in  sighting.  Despite  the 
many  ingenious  features  incorporated  in  this 
idea,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  met  with  official 
approval. 

There  has  recently  been  another  invention, 
based  upon  a  similar  idea.  This  is  what  is  called 
the  "  Life  Target,"  and  it  is  ingenious,  practical, 
and  well  thought  out,  especially  from  the 
mechanical  and  electrical  points  of  view.  The 
original  idea  was  suggested  by  a  non-com- 
missioned Irish  officer  who  fought  through  the 
Boer  war.  His  suggestion  in  its  crude  form, 
however,  was  scarcely  feasible,  but  there  were 
three  other  patents  available,  each  of  which  had 
been  designed  for  a  different  purpose,  and  it 
was  realised  that  a  combination  of  the  four  would 
enable  a  practicable  cinematographic  target  to  be 


202    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

produced.  Even  then,  innumerable  experiments 
were  required  before  perfection  was  gained. 

In  this  invention  the  salient  feature  is  that 
when  a  shot  is  fired  at  the  screen  the  whole 
of  the  mechanism  is  stopped  for  a  very  brief 
period,  and  the  hit  is  indicated  by  a  bright  spot 
of  light  on  the  target.  Consequently  the  marks- 
man is  able  to  ascertain  instantly  the  effect  of 
his  shot,  and  has  no  need  to  remove  his  eye  from 
the  object  at  which  he  has  aimed.  This  is  a 
distinct  advantage,  because  the  marksman  can 
keep  his  sight  ready  for  the  succeeding  shot, 
which  may  be  fired  instantly  the  mechanism 
resumes  working.  Directly  the  film  begins  to 
move  once  more  the  previous  shot  represented 
by  the  illuminated  spot  upon  the  target  is 
extinguished. 

The  apparatus,  as  described,  appears  to  be 
rather  complicated,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  its 
working  is  extremely  simple.  The  projector  is 
mounted  at  a  convenient  place  near  the  firing 
point,  so  that  a  truly  square  picture  is  presented 
to  the  marksman.  In  front  of  the  firing  line, 
and  above  the  picture,  is  a  very  sensitive  micro- 
phone or  telephone  receiver.  Connected  with 
this  is  a  delicate  relay,  which  really  forms  the 
heart  of  the  mechanism. 

When  a  shot  is  fired  the  report  acts  upon 
the  microphone  and  upon  the  relay  in  turn. 


MILITARY  VALUE  203 

Immediately  a  magnetic  clutch,  which  is  placed 
upon  the  motor  drive  of  the  projector,  is  released, 
and  a  brake  arrests  the  movement  of  the  projector 
mechanism.  Thus,  the  passage  of  the  film  is 
stopped  in  the  gate,  so  that  the  picture  remains 
stationary  upon  the  screen. 

The  screen  itself  consists  of  three  separate 
sheets  of  specially  prepared  thick  paper.  The 
front  sheet  is  coiled  upon  a  horizontal  roller 
which  is  mounted  at  the  bottom.  From  this  it 
is  carried  up  and  over  a  second  horizontal  roller 
at  the  top  of  the  screen  space,  and  then  down 
again  behind  the  front  sheet,  to  be  coiled  upon 
a  third  horizontal  roller,  mounted  above  the 
first  one.  As  the  lower  front  roller  can  be 
moved  or  "  fed "  the  paper  is  free  to  travel 
upwards  over  the  top  roller,  and  down  again 
to  be  wound  upon  the  third  roller.  Behind 
these  two  thicknesses  of  vertically  travelling 
paper  is  mounted  a  third  sheet.  This  is  coiled 
upon  a  vertical  roller  at  one  side,  passed  across 
the  back  of  the  two  front  sheets,  and  coiled  round 
a  second  vertical  roller  on  the  opposite  side. 
It  is  kept  very  taut,  and  serves  to  hold  the  two 
sheets  in  front  in  close  proximity.  It  is  moved 
by  hand  at  intervals. 

Behind  the  screen  are  a  number  of  arc  electric 
lights,  or  other  illuminants,  out  of  the  firing  line. 
In  this  way  the  space  behind  the  screen  is 


204    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

brilliantly  lighted.  As  the  paper  remains 
stationary  while  the  projector  is  running,  it 
follows  that  a  shot  must  penetrate  the  three 
thicknesses  of  paper,  and  the  puncture  is  shown 
by  the  light  from  behind  coming  through  the 
shot-hole.  Thus  the  marksman  can  see  where 
his  shot  has  struck. 

When  the  projecting  mechanism  has  been 
stopped,  and  the  result  has  been  read,  the  shot- 
hole  has  to  be  obliterated  before  the  film  is  able 
to  resume  its  forward  movement.  This  is 
accomplished  automatically  as  follows :  The 
relay,  while  declutching  the  drive  and  applying 
the  brake,  also  sets  in  motion  a  plunger  in  a 
dash-pot.  The  time  of  the  vertical  travel  of  this 
plunger  is  varied,  but  the  mechanism  remains 
stationary,  and  the  shot-hole  visible,  during  its 
movement.  When  it  has  reached  the  limit  of 
its  travel  it  establishes  contacts  which  serve  to 
set  the  screen  mechanism  in  motion.  On  the 
lower  horizontal  roller  carrying  the  supply  of 
paper  is  a  ratchet  and  pawl  movement,  actuated 
by  a  solenoid.  When  the  plunger  connected 
with  the  relay  closes  the  screen  mechanism 
circuit,  the  ratchet  is  moved,  and  the  outer  sheet 
of  paper  moves  upward  one-eighth  of  an  inch, 
while  its  return  forming  the  second  sheet  moves 
simultaneous^  and  correspondingly  downwards. 
The  displacement  of  these  two  vertically  moving 


•*  5 


=  •3 


=  I 


=-    =• 
<    g  « 

c   '—  — 

III 


MILITARY  VALUE  205 

sheets  disturbs  the  line  of  holes  caused  by  the 
shot,  and  through  which  the  back  light  was 
shining,  so  that  the  spot  of  light  is  extinguished, 
and  an  opaque  screen  is  presented.  The 
inclusion  of  the  third  or  back  paper  not  only 
serves  as  a  stiifener,  but  also  acts  as  a  means 
of  lessening  the  possibility  of  a  repeat,  especially 
as  it  is  moved  gradually  and  at  long  intervals 
in  a  transverse  direction.  The  movement  of 
the  travelling  surfaces  of  paper  is  extremely 
small,  approximately  the  diameter  of  a  shot-hole, 
so  that  the  consumption  of  paper  is  very  low. 
When  the  first  roller  has  been  exhausted  it  is 
only  necessary  to  replace  it  by  the  roller  on 
which  the  paper  has  been  rewound,  and  the 
paper  can  be  used  over  again.  The  possibility 
of  three  old  shot-holes  coming  once  more  into 
line  without  a  shot  being  fired  is  so  extremely 
remote  as  not  to  be  worth  consideration. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  final  stage  in 
the  cycle  of  movements  arising  from  the  action  of 
the  rifle  report  upon  the  microphone,  and  the 
relay,  is  the  movement  of  the  paper  forming  the 
screen  or  target  The  time  during  which  the  pic- 
ture remains  stationary  may  be  varied  within 
certain  limits,  but  normally  it  is  about  a  couple  of 
seconds.  When  the  paper  has  moved,  obliterating 
the  shot-hole,  the  brake  on  the  projector  is  released, 
the  magnetic  clutch  re-engages,  and  the  film 


206    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

resumes  its  travel.  The  ingenious  means  adopted 
for  stopping  and  restarting  the  projector  will  be 
appreciated  as  a  great  feature  of  the  invention, 
and  though  the  action  may  appear  to  be  abrupt, 
no  damage  whatever  is  inflicted  upon  the  film. 

One  point  about  this  apparatus  deserves  atten- 
tion. In  the  ordinary  projector,  if  the  celluloid 
film  is  stopped  in  the  gate  for  a  fraction  of  a 
second,  and  is  exposed  to  the  light,  it  flares  up 
instantly,  owing  to  the  great  heat  emitted  by  the 
illuminant  and  the  high  inflammability  of  the  film. 
As  it  is  necessary  to  allow  the  film  to  stand  still 
upon  the  screen  in  this  case,  after  the  shot  has 
been  fired,  means  had  to  be  found  to  keep  it 
sufficiently  cool  to  prevent  combustion.  This  is 
done  by  a  radiator  arranged  around  the  condenser, 
which  in  itself  is  a  special  kind  of  cooling  tank. 

Another  noteworthy  point  is  the  way  in  which 
a  still-life  lantern  slide  is  thrown  upon  the  screen 
when  desired.  The  projector  carries  two  lenses, 
one  for  animation,  and  the  other  for  still-life 
lantern  slide  work.  The  ordinary  way  of  bringing 
the  latter  into  use  is  to  push  the  front  part  of  the 
projector  bodily  sideways  so  as  to  bring  the 
second  lens  before  the  condenser  and  the  light. 
The  objection  to  this  method  is  that  the  rigidity 
of  the  projector  is  likely  to  be  disturbed,  especially 
after  a  little  wear,  with  the  result  that  the  pro- 
jection of  the  moving  pictures  is  apt  to  become 


=  " 


By  permission  of  the  Motograph  Co. 

ClNEMATOGRAPHING  HEDGE-ROW    LlFE    UNDER    DIFFICULTIES. 

Mr.  Frank  Newman  and  his  camera  concealed  in  the  scrub. 


MILITARY  VALUE  207 

unsteady.  In  this  apparatus  a  mirror  is  placed 
in  the  lantern  and  set  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 
By  this  means  the  light  can  be  diverted  and 
thrown  through  the  lantern  slide  lens.  Thus  it 
is  not  only  possible  to  throw  a  still-life  slide  upon 
the  screen  at  the  instant  when  a  moving-picture 
scene  is  completed,  but  excellent  dissolving  effects 
can  be  obtained. 

The  pictures  are  projected  at  the  normal  speed, 
but  this  may  be  accelerated  if  necessary.  Any 
films  suited  to  the  subject  may  be  used,  hydro- 
planes, airships,  birds,  wild  animals,  and  so  forth, 
just  as  successfully  as  the  military  films  prepared 
specially  for  the  worL  In  fact  any  picture  where 
movement  is  portrayed  is  equally  applicable,  so 
that  the  marksman  can  become  used  to  all  sorts 
of  conditions.  Experience  has  shown,  however, 
that  a  picture  projected  at  the  normal  speed  of 
sixteen  per  second  is  too  rapid  for  the  average 
man  unless  the  object  was  moving  slowly  when 
photographed.  It  has  been  proved  that  practice 
with  this  target  improves  quick-sighting  and  so 
teaches  the  art  of  snap-shooting  which  is  said  to 
be  the  essence  of  modern  marksmanship.  After 
a  little  experience  the  marksman  develops  the 
tendency  to  sight  instantaneously  as  he  lifts  his 
weapon.  For  training  in  revolver  shooting, 
which  is  essentially  short-range  point-blank  work, 
it  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  a  better  system. 


208    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

Even  if  considered  as  a  mere  diversion  the  life 
target  has  many  advantages.  There  is  a  sensa- 
tional realism  which  is  lacking  in  the  ordinary 
shooting  gallery.  The  man  at  the  firing  point 
is  occupying  the  same  relative  position  as  that 
of  the  cinematographer  when  he  filmed  the  sub- 
ject, and  when,  for  instance,  a  tiger  is  springing 
directly  out  of  the  picture,  the  man  with  the  gun 
has  just  the  same  feeling  as  if  caught  at  close 
quarters  in  the  jungle.  He  sights  and  fires 
quickly,  hoping  to  hit  in  a  vital  part,  and  the 
instantly  appearing  shot-hole  tells  him  how  he 
would  have  fared  had  he  been  face  to  face  with 
the  animal  in  its  native  haunts. 

So  far  as  military  shooting  is  concerned  the 
system  has  its  limitations.  For  the  reasons 
explained  the  screen  cannot  be  more  than  100 
feet  from  the  firing  line.  It  is  a  pure  point-blank 
range.  No  allowances  can  be  made  for  windage 
or  trajectory.  There  is  yet  another  factor  that 
controls  the  distance  between  the  firing  range 
line  and  the  screen,  and  that  is  that  paper  cannot 
be  obtained  in  widths  exceeding  9  feet.  A  single 
width  must  form  the  screen,  since  no  light  must 
be  visible  from  it  until  it  is  perforated  by  a  bullet. 
So  there  is  a  strict  limit  to  the  size  of  the  target. 
But  it  is  possible  to  get  subjects  life  size,  and 
nothing  more  is  required. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   PREPARATION   OF  EDUCATIONAL   FILMS 

ALTHOUGH  animated  photography  is  regarded 
popularly  as  an  amusement,  and  the  picture 
palace  is  maintained  to  be  the  poor  man's  theatre, 
efforts  are  being  made  to  lift  the  invention  into 
a  higher  and  more  useful  plane.  It  is  sought  to 
adapt  it  to  the  schoolroom,  the  college  and  the 
technical  institute.  Up  to  the  present,  however, 
little  headway  has  been  made  in  this  direction, 
though  the  market  is  flooded  with  so-called 
educational  films. 

Unfortunately  the  attitude  of  the  responsible 
authorities  is  lukewarm,  somewhat  to  the  chagrin 
of  those  who  are  specializing  in  the  preparation 
of  these  films.  The  authorities  are  "said  to  be 
prejudiced  against  the  invention,  and  no  doubt 
the  impression  still  lingers  that  the  cinematograph 
is  an  instrument  of  frivolity. 

Up  to  a  point  the  authorities  are  correct  in 
their  attitude.  It  is  the  producer  who  is  at  fault, 
The  former  recognise  the  many  advantages  arising 
from  the  appeal  to  the  eye,  but  unfortunately  the 
producer  looks  at  the  question  from  the  show- 

p.c.  P 


210    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

man's  point  of  view.  He  is  not  content  to  pre- 
pare a  subject  which  shall  appeal  only  to  pupils 
as  such,  but  is  always  trying  to  introduce  an 
element  which  shall  make  the  film  popular  with 
adults  as  well.  He  seeks  to  arouse  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  schoolroom  and  of  the  picture 
palace  at  one  and  the  same  time,  though  the  two 
are  as  widely  apart  as  the  two  poles,  and  what  is 
suited  to  one  is  by  no  means  adapted  to  the  other. 
The  patron  of  the  picture  palace  must  be  enter- 
tained only.  Education,  if  any,  must  be  uncon- 
scious. On  the  other  hand,  the  essential  con- 
sideration in  the  school  is  the  training  and 
teaching  of  the  young  mind.  If  amusement  is 
introduced  the  educational  value  of  the  film  is 
liable  to  be  small. 

In  this  attempt  to  supply  two  different  markets 
simultaneously  many  producers  over-reach  them- 
selves. They  fail  to  realise  that  a  schoolroom 
film  must  be  absolutely  natural,  that  there  must 
be  no  trickery  or  faking.  There  are  several 
films  on  the  market  to-day,  aiming  at  the  require- 
ments of  education,  wherein  the  most  attractive 
incidents  are  nothing  more  nor  less  than  examples 
of  fake  photography.  The  educational  autho- 
rities are  only  too  well  aware  that  trickery  is 
one  of  the  cinematographer's  most  useful  tools, 
and  accordingly  many  films  of  an  apparently 
astonishing  character  are  regarded  with  sus- 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  211 

picioiL  Until  all  traces  of  faking  and  chicanery 
are  abandoned  the  authorities  are  certain  to  look 
coolly  on  the  suggestion  of  teaching  by  the 
cinematograph. 

Nevertheless  the  film  must  be  prepared  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  pupil  is  not  bored.  It 
must  be  rendered  interesting  and  fascinating  or 
it  will  be  no  better  than  the  old  Dry-as-dust 
teaching.  And  the  infusion  of  interest  is  by  no 
means  difficult.  Every  branch  of  science,  every 
item  in  the  curriculum,  can  be  taught  by  motion 
pictures.  One  producer  has  prepared  a  novel 
and  interesting  film  for  teaching  the  alphabet 
and  the  spelling  of  simple  words  with  the  aid 
of  a  troupe  of  acrobats.  The  acrobats  contort 
themselves  into  the  shapes  of  letters  upon  the 
screen  before  the  children's  eyes.  The  children 
naturally  follow  the  process  with  interest,  and 
the  finished  letter  at  once  impresses  itself  upon 
their  minds.  The  spelling  of  the  words  is  carried 
out  in  the  same  way. 

Another  producer  has  a  novel  idea  for  explain- 
ing the  principles  of  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, and  division.  He  has  devised  animated 
scenes  with  teddy  bears  and  oranges,  and  the 
setting  itself  is  a  schoolroom.  The  actors,  who 
are  children,  are  dressed  in  bear  skins,  and  they 
behave  in  a  truly  grizzly  manner.  The  very  fact 
that  this  favourite  toy  is  introduced  rivets  the 

p  2 


212    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

attention  of  young  children,  and  they  follow  the 
arithmetical  adventures  of  the  oranges  with 
the  utmost  fascination.  The  bears  themselves 
perform  their  parts  most  decorously,  without 
any  horseplay  or  clowning.  The  youngsters 
following  the  incidents  upon  the  screen  are 
induced  to  regard  the  projection  seriously,  and 
it  has  been  found  that  afterwards,  in  their  leisure 
hours,  they  reconstruct  the  incidents  with  their 
own  toys.  In  this  way  they  show  that  they  have 
grasped  the  idea  that  was  to  be  conveyed. 

In  dealing  with  the  sciences  similar  methods 
must  be  practised.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that 
it  is  intended  to  teach  physics,  chemistry,  or 
electricity  with  the  aid  of  moving-pictures.  The 
film  must  commence  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
subject.  The  text-book  should  be  taken  as  a  model. 
The  producer  of  the  film,  if  he  is  well  acquainted 
with  his  subject,  can  devise  experiments  to  suit 
any  stage  of  knowledge.  He  can  vary  the 
experiment  so  as  to  bring  the  pupil  face  to  face 
with  something  which  has  never  been  illustrated 
by  diagram  in  the  text-book.  He  can  lead  the 
pupil  on  step  by  step,  and  the  more  deeply  he 
plunges  into  a  particular  science  the  wider  is 
his  scope  for  the  portrayal  of  fascinating 
experiments. 

The  preparation  of  films  of  this  character  offer 
attractive  possibilities  to  the  independent  worker, 


(i)  MOOR-HEN  SITTING  ON  HER  NEST. 


(2)  THE  YOUNG  CHICK  PIERCE; 


(3)  THE  CHICK  EMERGING  FROM  THE  SHELL. 


(4)  THE  NEWLY-HATCHED  CHICK  STRUGGLING  TO  ITS  FEET. 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  213 

especially  if  he  is  familiar  with  teaching  methods. 
The  professional  producer  is  often  unable  to 
reduce  his  subjects  to  the  requisite  simplicity. 
As  a  rule  he  knows  little  or  nothing  about  a 
schoolroom,  and  the  result  is  that  he  confines 
himself  to  the  preparation  of  extremely  fasci- 
nating films  of  a  very  advanced  type,  suited  to 
the  student  in  the  secondary  school  or  to  one 
who  has  mastered  the  rudiments  of  the  science. 
But  it  is  in  the  laying  of  a  solid  foundation  that 
the  teacher  finds  his  greatest  difficulty.  As  a  rule 
he  has  to  go  over  the  ground  repeatedly  before 
the  elementary  points  sink  into  the  pupil's  mind. 
This  drudgery  can  be  greatly  reduced  by  use  of 
the  moving-pictures,  if  only  the  right  type  of 
film  is  shown.  The  professional  producer  main- 
tains that  such  an  elementary  film  is  useless, 
merely  because  he  looks  at  it  from  the  showman's 
point  of  view. 

Another  reason  why  the  independent  cinema- 
tographer  should  embark  upon  this  field  is  that 
he  is  generally  more  ingenious  and  fertile  in  the 
preparation  of  experiments  to  suit  the  limitations 
of  a  lesson.  He  will  know  how  to  be  simple,  so 
that  the  pupil,  after  the  demonstration,  can  go 
into  the  laboratory  and  repeat  the  experiments 
with  a  knowledge  of  what  he  is  doing. 

As  the  pupil  advances  the  films  may  be  varied. 
For  instance,  in  the  experiments  with  sulphur 


2i4    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

he  can  be  shown  how  sulphur  is  obtained. 
Views  can  be  introduced  of  the  mines  and 
processes  as  practised  in  Sicily  or  Louisiana, 
and  in  this  case  the  difference  between  ancient 
and  modern  methods  can  be  brought  home  to 
him.  Similarly  in  regard  to  the  subject  of 
common  table  salt  it  is  possible  to  show  the 
various  methods  of  extraction,  from  the  solar 
evaporating  system  practised  in  the  Caucasus 
and  California,  and  the  excavation  of  rock  salt 
as  in  Galicia,  to  the  pumping  of  brine  and  forced 
evaporation  common  to  the  "  Wiches  "  of  England. 
The  film  may  be  "  lightened "  by  glimpses  of 
bathing  in  the  Great  Salt  Lake  or  the  brine  baths 
of  England  in  order  to  convey  pictorially  the 
difference  in  the  density  of  salt  and  fresh  water. 
In  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  reproduce  upon 
the  screen  the  processes  of  Nature,  the  character 
of  the  experiment  varying  with  the  stage  of  the 
pupil's  knowledge. 

Attempts  are  being  made  to  teach  geography 
by  moving-pictures,  but  here  again  the  same 
defects  appear.  Most  of  the  so-called  geo- 
graphical films  are  merely  the  "  Travel  Subjects  " 
of  the  picture  palace, — another  attempt  to  make  a 
subject  fit  both  the  theatre  and  the  schoolroom. 
Such  films  are  useless  except  to  form  a  pictorial 
interlude  in  text-book  explanation.  Yet  there  is 
a  remarkable  scope  for  geographical  films.  Let 


(5)  EXHAUSTED  BY  ITS  STRUGGLES  THE  Ci 
THE  Sux. 


(6)    A    FEW    HOURS    LATER    THE    CHICK    TAKES    TO    THE   WATER. 

The  "  Birth  of  a  Moor-hen."     A  wonderful  series  of  moving- 
pictures  taken  by  an  amateur  lady  cinematographer. 

From  the  "  Cinema  College,"  by  permission  of  ihe  Motograph  Co. 


FIGHT  BETWEEN  A  LOBSTER  AND  AN  OCTOPUS. 


By  permission  of  Pathf  Frires. 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  WATER-SNAIL. 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  215 

it  be  assumed  that  the  lesson  is  about  the  birth 
of  a  river.  The  teacher  dwells  at  length  upon 
the  possible  sources,  upon  the  tributaries  that 
increase  the  volume  of  water  during  its  journey, 
upon  the  navigable  reaches  and  the  traffic,  and 
lastly  upon  the  discharge  of  the  waters  into  the 
ocean. 

Cinematographically  the  rise  and  growth  of 
the  river  may  be  shown  far  more  graphically  and 
attractively.  The  pupil  can  see  every  phase. 
The  source  may  be  an  insignificant  spring,  the 
outflow  from  a  lake,  or  the  melting  ice  of  a  glacier. 
Its  rapid  growth  can  be  depicted  by  showing  the 
inflow  of  its  tributaries  and  the  many  sudden 
changes  through  which  it  passes,  its  rapids  and 
its  falls,  while  the  fact  that  water  follows  the  path 
of  least  resistance  may  be  illustrated  by  showing 
the  evidences  of  erosion  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  river  has  cut  its  channel  through  friable  soil, 
or  taken  advantage  of  a  breach  in  a  rocky  rampart. 
At  the  same  time  the  pupil  can  be  introduced  to 
the  utility  of  the  waterway,  especially  upon  its 
upper  reaches,  by  pictures  of  the  craft  found 
thereon  and  the  traffic  in  which  they  are  engaged. 
The  varying  force  of  the  current  can  be  illustrated, 
and  also  the  flotsam  and  jetsam  that  has  been 
brought  down.  Finally,  gaining  the  lower 
reaches,  steam  and  motor  navigation  begins,  with 
towns  and  cities  on  the  banks,  and  in  conclusion 


216    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

the  pupil  may  be  given  an  idea  of  the  immensity 
of  the  estuary  together  with  the  life  and  industry 
at  this  point.  In  addition  some  impression  of  the 
delta  can  be  conveyed  with  moving-pictures  of 
the  way  in  which  the  detritus  brought  down  from 
the  upper  reaches,  is  deposited  at  the  mouth, 
forming  islands  and  sand-banks,  clothed  with 
vegetation,  and,  if  not  developed,  inhabited  by 
wild  fowl. 

The  preparation  of  such  a  film  is  certain  to 
occupy  a  long  time,  and  is  somewhat  expensive, 
but  these  items  must  be  disregarded  if  the  school- 
room is  to  have  what  it  requires.  A  film  of  this 
character  would  have  to  be  divided  into  certain 
lengths,  each  of  which  would  correspond  with  a 
lesson,  for  the  subject  is  too  vast  to  be  assimilated 
in  a  few  minutes.  Cramming  by  the  aid  of 
moving-pictures  would  be  worse  than  under 
present  conditions.  In  many  cases  the  camera 
will  show  that  existing  text-book  teachings  are 
erroneous  or  need  modification.  Some  idea  of 
the  utility  of  the  cinematograph  in  this  one 
particular  field  has  been  revealed  by  the  films  of 
the  Shackleton  and  Scott  Antarctic  expeditions. 
They  have  brought  home  more  vividly  than 
anything  else  the  meaning  of  the  eternal  snow, 
ice  and  cold,  associated  with  the  Polar  regions, 
and  they  have  served  to  dispel  many  false  ideas. 

So   far  the  greatest  success  achieved   by  the 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  217 

motion-pictures  in  the  field  of  education  is  in 
connection  with  natural  history.  Many  wonder- 
ful films  bearing  upon  animal  life  have  been 
prepared  and  have  created  sensations.  The  text- 
books tell  much  about  the  life  and  habits  of  the 
various  members  of  the  animal  kingdom,  but 
in  this  case  the  text-book  often  happens  to  be 
wrong.  Mr.  Frank  A  Newman,  an  industrious 
animal  photographer,  devoted  months  to  the 
preparation  of  a  film  5,500  feet  in  length  dealing 
with  certain  phases  of  animal  life.  He  confined 
his  efforts  to  the  study  of  those  creatures  which 
are  familiar  to  all.  Incidentally,  he  proved  the 
value  that  a  highly  instructive  film  possesses  in 
the  market,  for  within  sixty  days  of  its  first 
appearance  upon  the  screen,  over  ^8,000  or 
$40,000  was  realised  from  the  disposal  of  the 
rights  to  exploit  the  film  in  different  countries. 

Pictures  dealing  with  animal,  bird,  fish  or 
reptile  life  never  fail  to  command  high  prices. 
Indescribable  patience  is  demanded  in  their 
preparation.  Months  may  pass  and  yield  only  a 
few  hundred  feet  of  suitable  material,  and  the 
photographer  has  to  resort  to  the  most  extra- 
ordinary devices  to  take  the  subjects  in  their 
natural  environment.  One  worker,  who  set 
himself  the  task  of  filming  the  kingfisher, 
discovered  the  haunts  of  his  quarry,  and  then 
quietly  commenced  to  establish  himself  in  its 


218    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

vicinity.  He  had  to  be  exceedingly  cunning  in 
his  movements,  masking  the  position  he  had 
assumed  in  four  feet  of  water,  with  a  clump  of 
tree  boughs.  Concealed  in  this  ambuscade  he 
approached  the  bird,  moving  with  extreme  care, 
so  as  to  convey  the  impression  that  the  boughs 
were  drifting  with  the  stream.  Behind  this 
ambush  he  placed  his  camera,  clamping  it  to  a 
heavy  floating  base,  which  was  anchored.  In  this 
way  he  was  able  to  move  undetected.  When  he 
thought  that  the  time  had  come  for  an  exposure, 
he  commenced  to  turn  the  handle,  but  the  whirr 
of  the  mechanism  scared  the  bird,  and  he  was 
forced  to  wait  some  time,  until  its  courage  revived 
and  it  came  back.  He  then  mounted  a  second 
camera  on  the  floating  base,  and  this,  being 
empty  of  film,  was  set  in  motion  every  time  the 
bird  returned,  until  it  grew  accustomed  to  the 
unusual  noise.  After  a  few  days  the  bird  took  no 
further  notice  of  the  sound,  and  then  the  pictures 
could  be  taken  with  comparative  ease.  Altogether 
some  seven  weeks  were  occupied  in  obtaining 
about  200  feet  of  film,  during  which  time  the 
operator  had  often  to  stand  for  hours  at  a  time  in 
four  feet  of  water,  awaiting  his  opportunities. 
How  completely  his  strategy  and  patience  were 
rewarded  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in 
one  incident,  where  the  bird  is  shown  devouring 
a  fish  it  has  caught,  it  perched  upon  a  branch  of 


THE  HEAD  OF  THE  TORTOISE. 


By  permission  of 


Pathe  Freres. 


THE  HAWK  MOTH. 


**'i 

.^tf^KT 
SNAKE  SHEDDING  ITS  SKIN  OR  "SLOUGH." 


From  the  "  Cinema  College,"  by  permission  of  the  Motograph  Ci 

THE  SNAKE  AND  ITS  SHED  SLOUGH. 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  219 

the  ambuscade,  barely  four  feet  from  the  lens, 
completely  unaware  of  the  fact  that  its  actions 
were  being  recorded 

Another  indefatigable  worker  is  Mr.  J.  C.  Bee 
Mason,  whose  speciality  is  the  filming  of  insect 
life.  He  has  produced  four  films  depicting  the 
honey  bee.  As  studies  they  are  intensely 
interesting,  and  they  bring  out  the  characteristics 
of  the  subject  in  a  most  attractive  manner.  The 
average  worker  might  hesitate  to  film  such  a 
subject  at  close  quarters.  The  bee  is  very  quick 
to  resent  intrusion  and  disturbance  in  a  way 
peculiarity  its  own.  Mr.  Mason  himself  admits 
that  in  the  early  days  he  received  very  severe 
punishment,  but  he  stuck  to  his  camera  and  his 
work  with  the  result  that  in  the  course  of  time 
he  became  accustomed  to  the  attacks  of  the  bees 
and  to-day  a  sting  has  no  more  effect  upon  him 
than  upon  a  deal  board.  The  result  of  this 
patience  is  reflected  in  the  excellence  of  his 
films  which  bring  bee  life  most  intimately  before 
the  spectator.  The  bee  is  always  an  object  of 
interest,  and  in  this  particular  case  his  films 
have  brought  Mr.  Mason  over  £3,000,  or  $10,000. 

Although  here  and  there  one  comes  upon  a 
film  which  exactly  meets  with  the  requirements 
of  the  schoolroom,  the  majority  can  make  no 
such  claim.  They  are  merely  instructive,  in  an 
amusing  kind  of  way,  and  in  the  picture  palace 


220    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

they  come  as  a  welcome  relief  from  transpontine 
drama  and  buffoonery.  Fortunately,  at  the 
present  moment,  there  is  a  growing  tendency 
to  make  films  which  the  schools  will  really 
welcome.  One  concern  is  studying  the  situa- 
tion very  closely.  This  is  the  Motograph 
Film  Company  of  London,  which  has  completed 
contracts  with  the  most  prominent  European 
scientific  cinematographers  for  their  entire  output 
of  educational,  scientific  and  natural  history 
subjects.  It  is  also  endeavouring  to  persuade 
the  eminent  teachers  of  certain  subjects  to 
commit  their  work  to  the  celluloid  film  instead 
of  to  printed  books.  It  is  a  difficult  quest 
because  the  professors  are  apt  to  regard  the 
cinematograph  as  a  joke.  At  the  same  time, 
once  the  development  becomes  started  upon 
the  correct  lines,  it  cannot  fail  to  meet  with 
success. 

The  independent  worker  also  is  being  encour- 
aged by  the  Motograph  Film  Company,  and 
the  cinematographic  student  of  scientific  subjects 
has  a  very  profitable  market  open  to  him.  The 
prices  paid  for  the  films  naturally  vary  according 
to  their  merit,  but  this  company  is  prepared  to 
pay  from  25.  6d.  to  215. — from  60  cents  to 
$5 — per  foot  of  film  for  subjects  which  meet 
with  its  approval.  The  lengths  may  range 
from  50  to  6,000  feet.  Recently,  an  independent 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  221 

lady  worker,  who  in  her  spare  time  had  given 
attention  to  filming  the  "  Life  of  a  Moorhen," 
showing  the  building  of  the  nest,  laying  of  the 
eggs,  hatching  and  rearing  of  the  young,  sub- 
mitted her  film  to  this  concern.  Some  two- 
and-a-half  years  had  been  expended  upon  this 
subject,  but  the  quality  and  the  incidents 
depicted  were  so  excellent  that  the  1,000  feet 
of  film  was  bought  for  £650  ($3,250).  This 
film  has  proved  that  the  highest  class  of  work 
must  be  obtained  from  the  independent  worker, 
or  amateur,  if  that  word  is  preferred,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  time  is  no  object,  the  task  is 
not  hurried,  and  no  effort  is  spared  to  obtain 
the  finest  results.  Another  instructive  film 
bought  by  this  concern  shows  "  Big  Game 
Hunting  in  the  North  Pole  Icefields."  It  intro- 
duces one  to  the  polar  bear.  Altogether  this 
subject  extends  over  8,000  feet,  but  for  a  selected 
length  of  1,900  feet  the  sum  of  £2,000  ($10,000) 
was  paid.  In  the  case  of  another  celebrated 
Arctic  film,  taken  during  the  two  years'  imprison- 
ment of  the  Whitney  expedition  in  the  frozen  zone, 
and  about  6,000  feet  in  length,  the  same  company 
gave  £3,000  ($15,000)  for  the  English  rights  alone. 
Although  the  cinematograph  has  failed  to 
make  a  very  pronounced  advance  among  our 
educational  institutions,  it  has  proved  a  striking 
success  in  education  of  another  kind.  This  is 


222    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

in  regard  to  the  propaganda  for  improving  health 
and  hygiene.  This  movement  has  reached  its 
highest  stage  of  development  in  the  United 
States.  The  "  Swat  the  Fly  "  movement,  which 
declared  a  relentless  war  against  the  common 
house-fly,  was  powerfully  assisted  by  the  exhibi- 
tion of  films  depicting  the  fly  at  work  in  the 
dissemination  of  disease.  Free  exhibitions  have 
been  given  throughout  the  United  States  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  home  to  the  public  the 
serious  menace  that  this  insect  offers  to  the 
welfare  of  the  community.  One  or  two  of  the 
films  used  for  the  purpose  were  bought  from 
England,  where  they  had  been  used  in  the 
picture  palaces.  But  the  organisation  pledged 
to  the  extermination  of  the  fly  turned  them  to 
a  far  more  serious  purpose,  and  its  work  has 
met  with  remarkable  success. 

Another  series  of  health  films  bear  upon  the 
"Great  White  Scourge."  They  are  being 
exhibited  freely  and  are  bringing  home  to  the 
public  the  terrible  ravages  wrought  by  tuber- 
culosis. The  dreaded  bacillus  is  shown  at  its 
fell  work,  and  the  different  stages  of  the  disease 
are  pictorially  represented.  Then  follow  a  series 
of  photographs  showing  how  it  is  transmitted, 
and  lastly  some  pictorial  suggestions  as  to  how 
it  may  be  combated,  at  least  in  its  early  stages, 
by  fresh  air  and  sanatorium  treatment. 


EDUCATIONAL  FILMS  223 

The  success  of  the  fly  and  White  Scourge 
campaigns  has  resulted  in  the  preparation  of 
other  films  dealing  with  the  public  health,  while 
many  local  authorities  have  taken  up  the  idea 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  conditions  of 
their  localities.  Many  of  the  films  used  for  the 
purpose  are  prepared  by  amateur  workers, 
especially  when  the  subject  is  of  local  importance, 
and  their  ventures  are  proving  highly  profitable. 
Experience  has  proved  in  no  uncertain  manner 
that  moving-pictures  will  soon  be  the  world's 
most  powerful  educator. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

PHOTO-PLAYS   AND    HOW   TO   WRITE   THEM 

THE  vogue  of  the  picture  palace  has  created  a 
new  profession.  This  is  the  writing  of  plays 
especially  for  cinematographic  production.  In 
the  early  days  the  handful  of  producers  engaged 
in  the  craft  had  no  difficulties  in  meeting  their 
needs  in  this  direction.  The  producer  conceived 
and  worked  out  his  own  ideas.  The  market  was 
small,  the  output  was  restricted,  and  it  did  not 
matter  whether  the  plots  were  good,  bad,  or 
indifferent.  The  public  was  quite  content  with 
the  dramatic  fare  supplied  upon  the  screen,  being 
more  impressed  by  the  novelty  of  the  perfor- 
mance than  by  its  merits. 

But  with  the  rage  for  picture  palaces  the  whole 
business  underwent  a  transformation.  The 
public,  having  outlived  the  era  of  curiosity,  and 
having  shown  by  its  patronage  that  it  regarded 
the  picture  palace  in  the  same  light  as  a  theatre 
or  music  hall,  grew  more  and  more  critical.  It 
demanded  stronger  plots,  improved  mounting 
and  acting,  as  well  as  better  photographic  quality. 
As  new  firms  entered  the  producing  field,  com- 


HOW   TO   WRITE  PHOTO-PLAYS    225 

petition  became  acute,  and  the  whole  photo-play 
industry  automatically  transferred  itself  from  the 
pioneer  to  the  accomplished  master  of  stage-craft 
The  producer,  unable  to  prepare  his  scenarios 
himself,  sought  the  assistance  of  the  amateur 
playwright,  just  as  the  editor  of  a  periodical 
solicits  contributions  to  fill  his  pages. 

It  was  a  golden  opportunity  for  the  unknown 
struggling  dramatist.  Foiled  hitherto  by  lack  of 
chance,  the  power  of  the  privileged  few,  and  the 
absence  of  enterprise  displayed  by  theatrical 
managers,  he  handed  his  work  to  the  upstart 
rival,  the  picture-play  producer.  It  was  a  wise 
move.  The  dramatist  did  not,  indeed,  secure 
that  measure  of  publicity  upon  the  screen  which 
might  have  been  his  lot  upon  the  boards,  but  the 
financial  returns  were  more  regular.  As  he 
developed  his  inclinations,  and  his  work  became 
appreciated,  he  was  able  to  anticipate  a  com- 
fortable income,  owing  to  the  steady  demand  that 
arose  for  his  handiwork.  To-day  the  embryo 
dramatist  never  bestows  a  thought  upon  writing 
for  the  stage ;  the  cinematograph  will  absorb  all 
that  he  can  produce,  and  as  rapidly  as  he  can 
complete  it. 

No  longer  need  a  budding  genius  starve  un- 
known and  unappreciated  in  a  garret.  If  his 
work  possesses  any  merit  the  cinematograph  will 
turn  it  to  profitable  account.  About  three  hundred 

p.c.  Q 


226    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

picture-plays  are  placed  upon  the  world's  market 
every  week,  and  consequently  the  consumption 
of  plots  is  enormous.  What  is  more  important 
from  the  author's  point  of  view  is  the  expanding 
nature  of  this  market,  where  supply  cannot  keep 
pace  with  demand,  and  the  proportionate  improve- 
ment that  is  manifest  in  the  scale  of  remuneration. 
Ten  years  ago  a  plot  seldom  fetched  more  than 
five  shillings  or  a  dollar ;  to-day  the  same  material 
will  command  anything  between  £5  and  £$o — 
$25  to  $250.  In  this  field  of  activity  reputation 
counts  for  nothing.  The  play  and  the  play  only 
is  the  thing.  The  picture  palace  is  the  poor 
man's  theatre,  and  this  class  of  play-goer  is 
relentlessly  emphatic  in  condemnation,  and 
equally  enthusiastic  in  praise.  It  appreciates 
novelty  in  plot,  and  that  is  the  one  point  the 
author  has  to  bear  in  mind.  So  it  is  clear  that 
the  unknown  playwright  has  everything  in  his 
favour ;  in  fact,  his  work  is  generally  preferred 
to  that  of  the  skilled  writer.  It  contains  the 
very  best  efforts  of  its  creator ;  the  other  is 
probably  of  poor  quality,  because  the  man  with  a 
name  does  not  realise  what  the  people  want,  and 
thinks  that  for  the  cinematograph  anything  is 
good  enough. 

The  desire  of  the  photo-play  producer  to 
encourage  unknown  writers  has  led  to  the  in- 
evitable result.  He  is  inundated  with  plots  and 


By  permission  of  the 


Motograph  Co. 


MR.    FRANK    NEWMAN    AND    HIS   CAMERA    HIDDEN    WITHIN    A 
HOLLOW  TREE  TRUNK. 

The   utmost   concealment   is   necessary  to   secure  wild- life 
under  natural  conditions. 


HOW  TO  WRITE   PHOTO-PLAYS    227 

suggestions  of  every  description,  written  by 
every  type  of  man,  woman,  and  child.  Needless 
to  say,  a  large  proportion  of  the  submitted  con- 
tributions are  wildly  impossible,  or  contain  plots 
which  have  been  worn  so  thread-bare  that  there 
is  no  possible  chance  of  dressing  them  in  a  new 
guise.  Fortunately  the  task  of  sifting  the  wheat 
from  the  chaff  is  not  exacting.  A  hurried  scan  of 
the  opening  lines  generally  suffices  to  show 
whether  the  subject  is  excellent,  passable,  or 
hopeless. 

Picture-play  writing  is  an  art,  science,  or 
whatever  one  likes  to  call  it,  which  can  be 
cultivated.  The  average  person,  at  some  time  or 
other,  is  sure  to  have  an  idea — it  may  be  an  idle 
fleeting  thought — which  is  capable  of  being  turned 
to  useful  account.  The  picture-play  producer 
knows  this  very  well,  and  accordingly  holds  out 
every  inducement  in  the  hope  that  sooner  or  later 
he  may  light  upon  something  brilliant.  A 
suggestion  need  only  have  some  small  germ  of 
possibility,  but  the  producer,  from  his  experience 
of  the  theatre,  and  of  the  requirements  of  the 
picture  palace,  can  take  that  germ  and  evolve  it  in 
the  most  effective  manner. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  question 
arises  "  How  should  a  photo-play  be  prepared  ?  " 
While  there  is  no  golden  rule,  and  while  each 
producer  works  in  his  own  way,  it  is  possible  to 

Q2 


228     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

give  a  few  hints  to  the  beginner.  A  glance  at  the 
manuscript  is  enough  to  inform  the  reader 
whether  the  author  is  a  raw  hand  at  the  work  or 
otherwise,  and  although  every  manuscript  is 
reviewed,  more  interested  attention  is  attracted 
by  a  contribution  which  is  set  out  upon  more  or 
less  methodical  lines. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  just  as  well  to  remember 
that  the  photo-play  producer  of  to-day  is  a  man 
of  wide  experience.  In  most  cases  he  has 
graduated  upon  the  stage,  and  has  probably 
passed  through  all  the  phases  between  a  touring 
company  and  a  well-known  theatre.  As  a  result 
of  this  drilling  he  will  have  assumed  a  wide 
perspective.  Sheer  ability  will  have  brought 
him  to  the  control  of  the  cinema-studio  stage, 
where  the  work  is  most  exacting,  and  where 
there  is  a  very  great  demand  for  ingenuity  and 
resource.  Having  mastered  the  intricacies  and 
possibilities  of  the  photo-play  stage,  and  what  can 
be  done  by  photography,  he  will  be  a  thorough 
master  of  craft.  The  greater  number  of  the  play- 
producers  retained  by  the  foremost  firms  are 
men  who  climbed  to  the  top  rung  in  the  theatrical 
profession  and  merely  went  over  to  the  motion- 
picture  studio  because  it  offered  them  greater 
scope  for  their  prowess  and  knowledge.  Indeed, 
one  might  go  so  far  as  to  say  that,  unless  a  man 
has  served  his  apprenticeship  behind  the  foot- 


HOW  TO  WRITE  PHOTO-PLAYS    229 

lights,  he  is  an  indifferent  play-producer,  because 
he  will  be  ignorant  of  stage-craft  and  the 
technique  of  the  profession. 

A  man  of  such  experience  and  ability  is  able 
to  sum  up  the  value  of  a  plot  in  an  instant. 
Consequently  the  author  is  well  advised  to  con- 
dense his  plot  into  as  few  words  as  possible — 
the  briefer  the  outline  the  better.  In  some 
instances  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  indicate 
the  characters,  the  period,  or  the  scene.  The 
plot  is  the  only  thing  that  is  wanted :  the 
producer,  as  he  reads  it,  will  conjure  up  in  his 
mind  the  period,  environment,  atmosphere,  and 
characters,  wherewith  such  and  such  a  story  may 
best  be  worked  out. 

There  is  one  well-known  Continental  producer 
who  never  asks  for  more  than  a  bald  statement 
of  the  plot.  If  it  can  be  conveyed  in  six  lines 
he  is  more  than  satisfied.  On  one  occasion, 
while  seated  at  lunch,  one  of  the  party  jestingly 
suggested  an  idea.  Without  a  word  of  comment 
the  producer  scribbled  the  suggestion  upon  the 
back  of  an  envelope.  Returning  to  the  studio 
an  hour  or  so  later,  he  handed  a  note  to  one  of 
his  staff,  indicated  how  he  would  like  it  worked 
out,  the  colleague  fitted  in  the  characters,  evolved 
the  scenes,  period,  and  situations,  and  the  next 
morning  the  play  was  staged. 

One    of    the    foremost     French     picture-play 


230    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

producers  follows  a  similar  practice.  He  has 
a  staff  of  eight  writers  whose  sole  duty  is  the 
preparation  of  scenarios  for  production.  Plots 
as  they  flit  through  the  minds  of  these  men  are 
jotted  down  and  pigeon-holed.  The  outside 
contributions  which  come  in  with  every  post 
are  scanned,  and  those  thought  suitable  are 
dissected,  their  ideas  are  torn  out  and  re-com- 
mitted to  paper,  for  filing,  while  the  author  is 
rewarded  with  payment  according  to  the  merit 
of  his  work.  At  this  establishment  no  lengthy 
scenario  submitted  by  an  unknown  writer  is 
considered.  Time  is  too  valuable  when  eight  or 
ten  stages  have  to  be  kept  going.  The  staff 
is  fully  occupied  upon  the  work  in  hand,  and 
cannot  wade  through  pages  of  often  indecipher- 
able hand-writing.  The  method  of  this  particular 
producer  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  play  is  to 
have  an  abstract,  prepared  by  the  retained 
scenario  writer,  indicating  the  scenes,  their 
sequence,  characters,  and  other  details,  with  a 
brief  synopsis  of  the  plot,  the  whole  being  set 
out  upon  a  sheet  of  foolscap.  Upon  this  material 
the  producer  works,  explaining  to  the  company 
the  story  of  the  play  and  the  situations,  as  they 
progress  step  by  step. 

Many  producers,  however,  prefer  the  scenario 
to  be  submitted  in  a  more  complete  form,  though 
requirements  of  brevity  and  terseness  must  be 


HOW  TO   WRITE   PHOTO-PLAYS    231 

observed.  They  like  the  list  of  characters  to  be 
given,  together  with  a  suggested  period  and 
setting.  The  cast  should  be  kept  as  small  as 
possible,  as  a  plethora  of  characters  in  a  photo- 
play is  apt  to  be  bewildering.  Also  the  producer 
can  amplify  the  cast  if  he  wishes  to  do  so.  The 
plot  should  be  set  out  in  narrative  form.  A  bald 
synopsis  is  quite  sufficient  because  the  scenario 
expert  will  judge  the  merits  of  the  manuscript 
from  this  alone.  In  order  to  assist  the  producer 
the  main  points  and  situations  may  be  indicated. 
After  the  synopsis  there  should  be  some  sugges- 
tions for  working  out  the  story  scene  by  scene. 
These  are  not  essential,  but  they  sometimes 
give  the  reader  a  better  impression  of  the  story, 
and  help  him  in  staging  the  play.  The  chances 
are  a  hundred  to  one  that  the  play  never  will 
be  staged  as  written  by  the  author,  yet  its  brief 
evolution  is  often  appreciated. 

When  the  author  works  out  his  plots  he  must 
steer  clear  of  introducing  wild  impossibilities 
or  hopelessly  impracticable  suggestions.  The 
producer  is  admittedly  a  clever  man,  and  is  able 
to  get  wonderful  effects  with  the  aid  of  the 
camera,  nor  does  he  hesitate  to  employ  trickery 
when  it  will  further  his  purpose,  but  there  are 
limitations  even  to  trick  photography.  There 
was  one  manuscript  in  which  the  author, 
after  taking  his  villain  through  adventures 


232    PRACTICAL    CINEMATOGRAPHY 

innumerable,  suggested  a  sensational  means  of 
eliminating  him  altogether.  The  man  was 
speeding  across  a  frozen  river  to  escape  the 
vengeance  of  the  hero  when  the  ice  opened  up 
suddenly,  let  him  through,  and  then  closed  on 
him  to  hide  him  from  sight  and  memory.  Need- 
less to  say,  this  plot  met  with  scanty  considera- 
tion. In  another  case  the  plot  turned  upon  a 
lady's  ring.  The  lady  was  standing  by  a  river, 
and  the  ring  slipped  from  her  finger  into  the 
water  to  be  caught  and  swallowed  by  a  fish. 
Some  days  later  the  hero  was  fishing  in  the 
same  stream.  He  had  a  bite,  hooked  his  catch, 
cut  it  open,  and  found  the  ring.  It  is  difficult 
to  say  who  experienced  the  most  amazement, 
the  hero  when  he  opened  his  fish,  or  the  producer 
when  he  read  the  story. 

In  the  photo-play  profession  it  is  novelty  of  the 
plot  which  brings  success.  The  farther  the 
author  can  get  away  from  conventionality,  the 
bigger  will  be  the  reward.  This  is  where  the 
average  amateur  shows  deficiency.  He  is  content 
to  follow  the  footsteps  of  others.  Again,  many 
photo-play  writers,  instead  of  striving  to  be 
original,  prefer  to  steal  ideas  from  a  novelist  or 
short  story  writer.  This  work,  needless  to  say, 
is  sheer  waste  of  time.  The  producer  and  his 
staff  follow  the  periodicals  and  the  publishing- 
seasons  very  closely,  so  that  it  is  easy  for  them 


HOW  TO  WRITE  PHOTO-PLAYS    233 

to  detect  a  stolen  plot.  Moreover,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  to-day  the  leading  producing 
firms  have  arrangements  with  authors,  publishers 
and  editors,  for  the  exclusive  use  of  their  pro- 
ductions. These  sources  form  a  stand-by,  as  it 
were,  to  be  brought  into  use  when  the  fount  of 
original  scenarios  dries  up.  When  novels  and 
magazine  stories  are  to  provide  fare  for  the 
screen  the  producer  entrusts  the  work  of  adapta- 
tion to  one  of  his  staff  who  has  a  more  intimate 
idea  of  what  is  required,  and  will  perform  the 
task  far  more  satisfactorily  than  the  ordinary 
contributor. 

The  photo-play  author  has  one  great  advantage 
over  his  colleague  who  writes  for  the  stage.  The 
latter  has  to  supply  dialogue,  and  often  the 
success  or  failure  of  his  work  turns  upon  this 
factor.  In  writing  for  the  screen  dialogue  is  a 
lost  quantity.  It  is  action  which  is  required, 
because  the  spectator  has  to  follow  the  play  from 
what  he  sees,  and  not  from  what  he  hears. 
Accordingly  the  requirements  of  action  must  be 
kept  in  mind.  In  the  average  studio  the  actor 
either  extemporises  dialogue  to  fit  the  part  or 
situation,  or  else  the  producer  prompts  him. 

It  is  true  that  one  or  two  producers  stipulate 
that  the  photo-play  shall  be  written  out  in  detail 
as  if  it  were  to  be  played  behind  the  footlights, 
but  such  producers  may  be  set  down  as  incom- 


234    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

petent  or  behind  the  times.  A  few  years  ago 
one  of  the  Continental  firms  insisted  that  every 
play  should  be  written  out  in  full,  but  a  few 
months'  experience  showed  the  folly  of  this 
procedure.  Plays  mounted  in  this  manner  lacked 
that  grip  and  movement  which  is  necessary  in 
photographic  pantomime.  The  audience  could 
not  retain  the  thread  of  the  story,  and  the  interest 
consequently  flagged.  The  members  of  the 
company,  being  compelled  to  learn  their  lines, 
and  to  rehearse  continually,  went  through  their 
parts  like  puppets.  Accordingly  this  method  of 
mounting  and  acting  has  been  abandoned  in 
favour  of  the  other  in  which  the  company, 
absolutely  ignorant  of  the  plot  and  story,  is 
taken  through  it  step  by  step  and  maintained  at 
concert  pitch  throughout. 

The  writer  should  make  a  point  of  selecting  a 
striking  or  catchy  title  for  his  work.  Often  when 
the  plot  itself  is  useless  the  producer  will  buy  the 
manuscript  merely  to  apply  the  title  to  some 
other  production. 

A  word  of  warning  may  be  given  to  the  in- 
experienced photo-play  author.  Advertisements 
are  freely  inserted  in  the  various  periodicals 
offering  to  teach  the  art  of  writing  plays  for  the 
cinematograph,  and  to  submit  the  plots  to  the 
various  producers  in  the  manner  of  a  literary 
agency.  No  matter  how  speciously  and  attrac- 


HOW  TO  WRITE  PHOTO-PLAYS    235 

lively  the  advertisements  are  written,  the  offers 
they  contain  should  not  be  accepted.  The  author 
will  do  best  to  submit  his  work  directly  to  the 
producer  and  to  treat  with  him  alone.  The  art 
cannot  be  taught  by  schools  ;  it  can  only  be 
acquired  by  experience.  Nor  does  the  agency 
possess  more  favourable  opportunities  for  getting 
the  work  accepted  than  the  writer  himself,  while 
the  so-called  expert  who  maintains  that  he  can 
lick  a  plot  into  shape  is  merely  a  charlatan.  If 
the  plot  is  good,  whether  written  by  a  raw  or  a 
highly  trained  hand,  it  will  command  its  price, 
because  the  producer  is  no  respecter  of  persons. 
Also,  by  treating  directly,  the  author  comes  into 
touch  with  the  producer,  and  often  learns  points 
and  receives  encouragement  which  cannot  be 
transmitted  through  a  middle  man. 

How  is  the  work  rewarded  ?  This  is  a  question 
which  is  often  asked.  So  far  as  the  British 
market  is  concerned  the  photo-play  author 
receives  scant  encouragement.  British  enter- 
prise has  not  risen  to  the  level  of  that  of  the 
United  States  or  the  Continent.  The  British 
firms  neither  realise  the  value  of  a  good  plot  nor 
the  advantages  of  prompt  and  smart  business 
methods.  Here  and  there  may  be  found  a  firm 
which  is  keenly  alive  to  the  value  of  the  outside 
worker,  but  they  are  few  and  far  between.  On 
the  other  hand  the  American  and  Continental 


236    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

houses  give  an  immediate  decision,  treat  the 
outside  contributor  kindly,  extend  profitable 
words  of  advice  if  the  work  is  promising,  and  pay 
promptly.  A  plot  for  which  a  British  firm  con- 
siders 105.  od.  ($2.50)  to  be  an  adequate  remunera- 
tion will  realise  $25  (£$)  in  the  American 
market.  The  British  producer  will  consider 
£i  ($5)  to  be  a  princely  price  for  a  good  plot, 
and  so  long  as  this  impression  is  retained  the 
British  photo-plays  will  remain  inferior  to  their 
competitors.  On  the  other  hand,  the  American 
firms  deal  liberally  with  their  authors,  and  are  quite 
prepared  to  pay  from  $25  to  $150 — .£5  to  ,£30. 
Fortunately  signs  of  awakening  are  becoming 
evident  among  the  British  firms.  Good  plots, 
like  gold  nuggets,  are  somewhat  scarce,  and 
one  or  two  of  the  latest  and  most  progressive 
establishments  now  pay  up  to  £10  ($50). 

Picture-play  producers  are  finding  greater  and 
greater  difficulty  in  obtaining  first-class  plots. 
The  standard  of  excellence  has  been  set  so  high, 
owing  to  the  extremely  critical  character  of  the 
picture  palace  patron,  that  the  highest  work  only 
now  stands  a  chance  of  being  accepted.  The 
rivalry  among  the  producers  has  become  keen, 
because  a  strong  picture-play  can  command  a 
world-wide  sale.  One  Italian  firm,  in  the  effort 
to  forge  ahead  of  its  competitors,  went  so  far  as 
to  offer  a  prize  of  ;£  1,000  ($5,000)  for  the  best 


HOW  TO  WRITE   PHOTO-PLAYS    237 

scenario  in  open  competition.  It  is  admitted 
among  the  manufacturers  that  within  the  course 
of  the  next  few  years  the  royalty  system  must 
come  into  operation,  so  that  the  photo-play  author 
will  be  elevated  to  the  level  of  his  confrere 
writing  for  the  theatre. 

In  France  a  society  has  been  founded  for  the 
protection  of  photo-play  writers.  This  organisa- 
tion protects  its  members  by  securing  higher 
rates  of  payment,  by  introducing  the  work  of 
beginners  to  the  film-producers,  and  last,  but  not 
least,  by  advertising  the  writer. 

Ten  years  ago  the  picture-play  author  was 
regarded  with  disdain,  and  was  considered  to  be 
little  more  than  an  indifferent  literary  hack.  To- 
day he  is  regarded  as  a  powerful  force.  From 
the  lowest  and  most  ill-paid  level  he  is  rising  to 
the  highest  rungs,  where  his  rewards  are 
excellent  and  his  opportunities  unbounded. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS    IN   STAGE    PRODUCTIONS 

ALTHOUGH  the  mounting  and  staging  of  photo- 
plays has  been  greatly  improved,  the  art  has 
still  many  imperfections.  This  is  partly  due  to 
the  conservative  character  of  the  industry. 
There  is  a  lack  of  initiative  and  enterprise ;  the 
producers  are  content  to  keep  in  the  one  groove 
which  was  established  years  ago.  No  one  can 
deny  that  enormous  sums  of  money  are  expended 
upon  the  mounting  of  the  productions,  nor  assail 
them  from  the  photographic  viewpoint.  But 
there  is  a  lack  of  art  which  at  times  is  sadly 
jarring. 

This  was  to  be  expected.  When  the  English 
pioneers  embarked  upon  the  play-producing 
business  they  knew  nothing  about  stage-craft. 
Their  ambition  was  rather  to  perfect  the  photo- 
graphic quality  of  the  films.  So  rapidly  did  the 
movement  advance,  however,  and  so  insistent 
was  the  public  in  its  demands  for  better,  larger, 
and  more  lavishly  staged  plays,  that  the  pioneer 
found  himself  out-distanced.  At  this  juncture 
came  the  man  who  had  won  his  spurs  in  the 


RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS          239 

theatre,  and  who  was  thoroughly  expert  in  the 
technique  of  stage-craft.  His  professional  know- 
ledge lifted  the  art  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
pioneers,  who  retired  from  the  scene. 

The  introduction  of  the  professional  element 
commenced  in  France,  and  was  taken  up 
immediately  by  the  Americans.  These  two 
countries  went  ahead  so  rapidly  that  Great 
Britain  was  soon  left  behind.  The  world  became 
flooded  with  French  and  American  productions, 
and  in  this  healthy  race  the  latter  soon  went 
ahead  and  took  premier  position.  The  French 
industry,  being  threatened,  pulled  itself  together, 
and  taking  a  cue  from  American  methods  it 
overhauled  its  organisations  and  increased  its 
expenditure,  with  the  result  that  it  soon  attained 
the  level  of  excellence  achieved  by  the  United 
States.  At  a  later  date  the  Italian  industry, 
which  was  in  a  languishing  condition,  followed 
suit.  Money  was  sunk  in  the  enterprise,  huge 
studios  were  built,  and  talented  artists  were 
engaged  to  act  before  the  moving-picture  camera. 

Great  Britain  lagged  in  this  race,  and  it  is 
only  recently  that  the  British  producers,  by  a 
change  of  method  have  been  able  to  make  up 
the  leeway.  The  British  movement  was  rather 
of  a  sporadic  nature.  It  was  left  to  one  or  two 
enterprising  firms  to  show  the  way.  But  others 
have  followed,  and  to-day  there  is  the  keenest 


24o    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

rivalry  in  producing,  nor  is  expense  considered 
so  long  as  the  public  gets  what  it  wants.  To 
sink  £3,000  ($15,000)  in  a  single  production  has 
become  quite  a  common  venture. 

In  many  cases,  however,  in  spite  of  these 
changes,  photo-plays  still  follow  the  lines  that 
prevailed  ten  years  ago.  The  blemishes,  defects, 
and  anachronisms  are  just  as  pronounced  now 
as  they  were  then,  though  they  are  suffered  in 
silence  by  the  public.  Many  faults  are  hidden 
by  the  gorgeous  and  lavish  mounting  of  the 
scenes,  while  the  rapid  action  of  the  players 
serves  to  distract  attention  from  the  shortcomings 
of  the  environment.  But  the  feeling  of  actuality, 
which  ought  to  be  the  great  feature  of  the 
cinematograph,  is  missing.  The  scenic  acces- 
sories might  be  left  out  for  all  the  effect  that  they 
produce. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  photo-play  stage 
occupies  to-day  the  position  of  the  theatre  twenty 
years  ago.  The  scenery  is  for  the  most  part 
make-shift,  crudely  painted  in  the  neutral  black 
and  white,  the  stock  room  being  ransacked  to 
discover  pieces  of  canvas  to  fit  the  situation. 
There  is  no  attempt  to  create  an  artistic  effect. 
Also  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  reality  or 
individuality.  A  cell  scene,  for  instance,  bears 
every  sign  of  being  built  of  canvas  and  battens, 
and  so  does  the  exterior  of  a  mediaeval  castle, 


By  permission  of  Pathe  Freres. 

THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  AND  EGGS  OF  A  WATER  FLEA. 


By  permission  of  Pathe  Freres. 

THE  MOVING-PICTURE  NATURALIST  AND  THE  LIZARD  AT  HOME. 


RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS          241 

or  the  inside  of  a  conservatory,  and  completed 
by  a  factory  hand. 

Sometimes  the  shortcomings  of  the  studio- 
stage  are  avoided  by  setting  the  plays  in  an 
outdoor  surrounding,  and  in  this  instance  a  far 
more  realistic  effect  is  produced.  The  audience 
is  unconsciously  carried  away.  This  has  been 
specially  realised  by  some  of  the  American, 
Danish  and  Italian  firms. 

In  France  the  Gaumont  Company  has  shown 
equal  enterprise.  So  far  as  possible  the  elaborate 
productions  of  this  company  are  acted  in  a  scene 
suited  to  the  plot,  whether  it  be  a  sixteenth 
century  castle  or  a  modern  hotel  There  is 
ample  opportunity  for  doing  this,  and  the  present 
popularity  of  the  photo-play  proves  the  wisdom 
of  the  policy.  During  the  summer  months  as 
many  as  six  different  companies  will  be  working 
in  as  many  different  corners  of  Europe,  acting 
plays  in  the  open  air  for  the  picture  palaces. 
Even  the  interiors  in  Gaumont  films  are  often 
real  and  not  merely  constructed  for  the  occasion. 
As  a  rule  the  studio  is  used  only  during  the 
winter  when  the  climatic  conditions  are  unfavour- 
able for  outdoor  work.  This  is  the  chief  reason 
why  the  Gaumont  films  to-day  are  in  such 
demand,  and  why  the  company  has  forced  its 
way  to  the  front. 

The  conveyance  of  players  to  a  suitable  natural 
p.c  R 


242     PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

setting  is  expensive,  but  it  represents  all  the 
difference  between  success  and  failure.  Of 
course,  there  are  occasions  when  a  natural 
setting  demands  a  certain  amount  of  artificial 
embellishment.  This  was  the  case  in  the  filming 
of  Hamlet,  as  presented  by  Sir  Forbes  Robertson 
and  his  company.  A  sea  background  and  a 
battlemented  castle  were  required.  The  former 
was  quite  easy  to  find,  but  the  combination  of 
the  two  was  more  difficult.  The  problem  was 
solved  by  the  choice  of  Lulworth  Cove  as  the 
scene  and  by  erecting  a  solid  set  to  represent 
the  castle.  In  this  case  the  preparation  of  the 
extemporised  castle  was  so  thorough  and  care- 
ful that  it  looks  like  a  weather-beaten  stone 
building. 

The  photo-play  stage  will  be  forced  to  emulate 
the  current  practice  of  the  theatre.  It  must  bring 
the  artist  to  bear  upon  the  work.  At  the  moment 
it  is  merely  a  combination  of  the  photographer 
and  the  stage-manager  or  producer.  The  latter 
is  not  always  an  artist,  though  he  is  clever  at 
making  existing  facilities  suit  his  purpose.  The 
theatre  is  holding  its  own  principally  because  it 
respects  the  artistic  side  of  the  issue.  Indivi- 
duality is  encouraged.  The  photo-play  stage 
will  have  to  follow  the  same  line  of  action. 
Directly  this  is  done  the  picture  palace  will 
become  a  spirited  rival  of  the  theatre. 


RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS          243 

For  this  reason  the  efforts  of  Sir  Hubert  von 
Herkomer,  the  eminent  British  artist,  are  being 
followed  with  interest.  He  was  attracted  to  the 
photo-play  producing  business  owing  to  the 
artistic  atrocities  perpetrated  by  the  professional 
producer  of  film  plays.  He  is  not  attempting  to 
achieve  any  revolution,  except  in  the  mounting 
and  acting  of  plays  for  the  camera,  but  in  this 
sphere  he  hopes  to  bring  about  a  recognition  of 
the  part  that  the  artist  must  play. 

There  is  a  complete  absence  of  sensationalism 
about  the  artist-producer's  work,  and  in  this 
respect  he  goes  against  the  conventions.  He 
is  deliberately  flouting  many  of  the  accepted 
tenets  of  the  photo-play  production,  and  his 
attitude  is  certain  to  meet  with  some  hostile 
criticism.  But  from  the  realist  point  of  view  he 
is  correct.  His  matter-of-fact  productions  give 
verisimilitude  to  the  scene  and  story,  and  brings 
them  within  the  range  of  probability.  There  is 
no  straining  after  effect.  No  detail  is  introduced 
unless  it  has  a  distinct  bearing  on  the  subject. 
The  costumes  are  faithful  to  the  last  button.  If 
a  sixteenth  century  farmhouse  is  wanted,  it  is 
built,  and  built  so  well  that  in  the  picture  it  has 
every  appearance  of  having  been  built  of  stone. 

A  feature  which  will  be  appreciated  in  the 
Herkomer  productions  is  the  suppression  of  the 
harsh  and  distressing  blacks,  greys  and  whites, 

R  2 


244    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

which  under  brilliant  illumination  often  convey 
the  impression  of  snow.  Nor  do  the  players 
seem  to  be  suffering  from  anaemia.  These  appear 
to  be  trivial  matters  in  themselves,  but  they 
greatly  affect  the  ultimate  whole.  The  robust 
aspect  of  the  peasant  who  lives  out  of  doors  is 
faithfully  conveyed,  and  he  is  thrown  up  in  sharp 
contrast  to  the  white-faced  townsman.  In  the 
conventional  picture-play,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  is  no  individuality  of  facial  expression, 
because  one  and  all  are  made  up  in  the  same 
way. 

Sir  Hubert  von  Herkomer  has  commenced  his 
work  in  a  logical  way.  He  confesses  that  until 
he  began  it  he  knew  nothing  about  it.  He  was 
not  harassed  by  a  partial  knowledge  of  how  things 
are  done.  He  is  essentially  a  pioneer,  content  to 
work  out  his  own  ideas,  and  possessed  of  views 
upon  stage-craft  which  are  not  to  be  despised. 
They  had  a  good  effect  upon  the  theatre  twenty 
or  thirty  years  ago,  and  have  lately  been  revived 
by  another  enthusiast.  So  Sir  Hubert  von 
Herkomer  is  not  likely  to  be  the  slave  of 
tradition. 

He  maintains  that  in  the  average  photo-play 
everything  is  sacrificed  to  rapid  action.  This  is 
true,  and  it  is  done  purposely  to  distract  atten- 
tion from  the  weakness  of  the  rest.  The  spectator 
must  fix  his  attention  upon  the  characters  or  he 


RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS          245 

loses  the  thread  of  the  story.  No  time  is  given 
him  to  see  the  deficiency  of  atmosphere  or 
environment.  The  result  is  that  everything  is 
rushed  through  as  if  the  villain  and  hero 
were  racing  the  clock.  To  realise  this  it  is  only 
necessary  to  follow  the  film-play  of  a  well-known 
historical  story.  Familiarity  with  the  incident 
here  gives  the  spectator  a  chance  of  taking  in  the 
setting  and  the  mounting.  If  there  are  mistakes, 
interest  gives  way  to  mirth  and  all  concentration 
is  lost.  The  picture  is  followed  with  no  more 
enthusiasm  than  a  pantomime.  This  is  the  main 
reason  why  producers  are  chary  of  portraying 
well-known  historical  episodes  upon  the  screen. 
One  educational  authority  has  described  such 
films  as  burlesques,  and  that  is  among  the  causes 
of  opposition  to  the  cinematograph  as  an  educa- 
tional medium.  In  one  instance  an  attempt  was 
made  to  film  an  incident  in  one  of  Fenimore 
Cooper's  stories  with  white  actors  made  up  as 
Red  Indians.  It  was  acted  in  a  well-kept  private 
forest  instead  of  in  the  wild  woods  of  Canada. 
But  young  and  old  proved  to  be  too  familiar 
with  this  author's  works.  They  had  too  true  a 
notion  of  the  Canadian  timber  wilderness  to  be 
impressed  by  the  substitute  on  the  screen,  and 
received  the  presentation  with  the  ridicule  it 
deserved  The  sight  of  a  Red  Man  slouching 
through  the  bush  with  out-turned  feet  and  trying 


246    PRACTICAL  CINEMATOGRAPHY 

to  conceal  himself  behind  a  tree  less  than  six 
inches  in  thickness,  proved  to  be  merely  comic. 
But  other  things  equally  ridiculous  are  found  in 
many  of  the  films  of  to-day,  and  that  is  the 
reason  why  the  scenes  are  so  judiciously  rushed. 

By  slowing  down  the  speed  of  acting,  though 
without  reducing  the  sustained  interest,  Sir 
Hubert  von  Herkomer  contends  that  the  public 
will  be  put  in  a  position  to  grasp  the  whole 
subject,  and  will  be  able  to  follow  it  more 
rationally  and  comprehensibly.  At  the  same 
time  the  players  will  have  time  and  scope  to 
perform  their  parts  properly.  There  is  not  the 
least  reason  why  this  should  not  be  achieved 
without  allowing  the  action  to  flag  or  the  interest 
to  drop. 

The  lighting  of  the  subject  is  another  important 
feature  to  which  Sir  Hubert  von  Herkomer  is 
giving  attention.  The  illumination  must  be 
arranged  to  suit  the  situation,  and  as  cine- 
matography offers  the  utmost  latitude  in  this 
respect,  it  is  unnecessary  to  rush  to  violent 
extremes.  In  many  productions  the  studio  stage 
is  suffused  with  such  an  intense  glare  that  all 
facial  expression  and  shadows  are  sacrificed. 
Sir  Hubert  has  realised  how  great  is  the  scope 
for  improvement  in  this  direction,  and  is  altering 
the  whole  principle  of  stage  lighting.  Similarly, 
in  outdoor  work  he  is  supplementing  sunshine 


RECENT   DEVELOPMENTS          247 

with  arc  lights,  so  as  to  secure  the  steady 
illumination  necessary  for  good  effects.  The 
combination  of  brilliant  daylight  and  artificial 
illumination  is  a  novelty  in  photo-play  production, 
but  when  the  action  is  taking  place  under  trees, 
where  the  shadows  are  heavy  and  in  sharp  con- 
trast with  scattered  patches  of  brilliant  sunlight, 
the  players  are  apt  to  present  a  phantom  appear- 
ance. Sometimes  they  are  scarcely  distinguish- 
able. The  introduction  of  auxiliary  light  relieves 
the  shadowy  places  and  softens  the  general 
effect.  Needless  to  say  the  manipulation  of 
powerful  arc  lights  under  such  conditions 
demands  skilful  handling,  but  in  the  Herkomer 
films  the  improved  results  certainly  show  that 
the  labour  is  not  wasted. 

Whether  the  combination  of  artist  and  pro- 
ducer will  prove  successful  time  alone  can  show. 
There  will  be  a  certain  amount  of  commercial 
opposition,  lacking  in  artistic  feeling,  and  hostile 
to  innovation.  But  the  appearance  of  the  artist 
and  his  resolution  to  work  out  his  schemes 
logically  should  surely  be  encouraged  by  the 
public.  The  same  reforms  that  changed  and 
improved  the  theatre,  enabling  it  to  hold  its  own 
against  the  all-conquering  picture  palace,  have  a 
mission  to  the  latter  also.  They  can  lift  it  to  the 
higher  level  that  is  its  obvious  destiny. 


CHAPTER  XX 

WHY  NOT  NATIONAL  CINEMATOGRAPH  LABORATORIES? 

CONSIDERING  the  position  which  the  motion- 
picture  has  attained  in  our  social  and  industrial 
life,  the  establishment  of  national  cinematograph 
laboratories  appears  not  only  to  be  opportune, 
but  necessary.  At  the  present  moment,  if  one 
conceives  an  idea  for  the  solving  of  some  abstruse 
problem  by  means  of  animated  photography,  one 
is  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  opportunity  and 
facilities  for  carrying  out  the  work.  Either  the 
apparatus  required  must  be  made  specially,  or 
purchased,  in  which  case  heavy  expenditure  may 
be  incurred,  or,  one  must  go  to  Paris  and  make 
use  of  the  Marey  Institute,  either  by  becoming  a 
member  of  it  or  by  serving  as  the  representative 
of  a  contributory  society.  There,  one  is  able  to 
pursue  the  line  of  study  quietly,  easily,  and 
economically,  and,  even  if  the  ultimate  results  are 
disappointing,  or  the  cherished  theories  prove  to 
be  untenable,  certain  benefits  are  sure  to  accrue 
from  the  experiments.  The  time  is  not  wasted. 
The  Marey  Institute  is  unique  and  wonderful. 
Its  operations  are  world-wide.  Its  founder, 


NATIONAL  LABORATORIES        249 

Dr.  E.  J.  Marey,  was  a  prodigious  worker  who 
pursued  his  scientific  investigations  without  any 
idea  of  personal  gain.  When  first  he  entered  the 
arena  of  science  he  began  his  experiments  in  a 
large  room  upon  the  fifth  floor  of  a  house  in  the 
Rue  dePancienneComedie,  Paris,  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Com^die  Francaise.  Here  he 
fitted  up  as  good  a  laboratory  as  he  could  afford, 
dividing  the  spacious  apartment,  by  wooden 
partitions,  into  working  and  living  rooms.  His 
studies  soon  aroused  widespread  attention,  and 
their  results  were  subsequently  embodied  in  his 
classical  work,  "  The  Graphic  Method."  But 
some  ten  years  before  this  volume  appeared  his 
investigations  had  received  recognition.  In  1867 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  offered  him  the 
use  of  a  laboratory  at  the  College  of  France,  so 
as  to  be  able  to  carry  out  his  researches  to  better 
advantage. 

During  this  period  he  invented  numerous 
instruments  — the  sphymograph,  cardiograph, 
pneumograph,  thermograph,  and  odograph — with 
which  he  made  invaluable  contributions  to  scien- 
tific knowledge.  It  was  Konig's  work  which 
attracted  Marey  to  animated  photography,  as  a 
handmaid  of  science,  the  outcome  being  his 
greatest  discovery,  which  he  named  chrono- 
photography.  Marey  was  much  impressed  by 
Jannsen's  astronomical  revolver  with  which,  in 


25o    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

1873,  a  series  of  photographs  of  the  transit  of 
Venus  were  taken  in  70  seconds.  This  caused 
him  to  build  a  photographic  gun,  with  which 
gulls  in  flight  were  secured.  The  work  of 
Muybridge,  the  English  investigator  residing  in 
San  Francisco,  aroused  his  enthusiasm  to  the 
highest  pitch,  and  enabled  him  to  perfect  his 
system  of  taking  a  series  of  successive  photo- 
graphs upon  a  single  glass  plate.  Finally,  in  1893, 
he  produced  his  first  moving-picture  camera 
working  with  celluloid  films. 

But  some  twenty  years  before  this  last  achieve- 
ment he  had  conceived  the  idea  for  an  Inter- 
national Institution  where  experiments  of  this 
character,  in  connection  with  motion  photography, 
might  be  carried  out  to  the  advantage  of  the 
sciences.  He  realised  that  the  elucidation  of 
physiological  phenomena  was  quite  beyond  the 
capacity  of  a  single  individual.  He  outlined  his 
scheme  at  the  Fourth  Physiological  Congress, 
held  at  Cambridge  (England)  in  the  early 
seventies,  while  Monsieur  H.  Kronecker,  of 
Switzerland,  a  great  admirer  of  Marey's  work, 
who  succeeded  to  the  presidential  chair  of 
the  Institution  after  the  founder's  death,  urged 
a  similar  plea  at  an  exhibition  of  scientific 
apparatus  held  in  London  in  1876. 

Marey's  broad-mindedness  met  with  its  reward. 
With  the  assistance  of  private  friends  and 


By  permission  of  the  MotograpkCo. 

A  NOVEL  "HIDE"  CONTRIVED   BY  MK.  J.  T.  NEWMAN  WITH 
CAMERA  FIFTEEN  FEET  ABOVE  THE  GROCND. 

The  working  platform  is  covered  with  boughs  so  as  not  to 
alarm  the  forest  life  being  cinematographed. 


By  permission  of  the 


^fotograph  Co. 


THE  "HIDE"  OPENED  TO  SHOW  WORKING  PLATFORM,  TRESTLE 
SUPPORT,  OPERATOR  AND  CAMERA  PLACED  FIFTEEN  FEET 
ABOVE  THE  GROUND. 


NATIONAL  LABORATORIES        251 

contemporary  scientific  societies  throughout  the 
world  he  obtained  adequate  funds  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Institution,  the  necessity  for 
which  he  had  advanced  so  vigorously.  The  City 
of  Paris  gave  valuable  help  by  granting  the  use 
of  a  tract  of  land  attached  to  its  physiological 
station,  and  here  Marey  established  a  com- 
modious building  with  spacious  workrooms,  a 
library,  lecture  hall,  and  other  conveniences,  for 
the  profitable  prosecution  of  cinematographic 
research. 

Since  the  foundation  of  the  "  French  Cradle  of 
Cinematography,"  innumerable  and  valuable  con- 
tributions to  scientific  knowledge  have  been  made 
by  investigators  of  all  nationalities,  who  have 
gone  to  Paris  to  take  advantage  of  the  facilities 
offered.  Many  extraordinary  films  dealing  with 
the  various  branches  of  science  have  been  pre- 
pared. Many  of  the  most  prominent  scientists  of 
all  nations,  France,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Italy, 
Roumania,  Switzerland,  the  United  States  of 
America,  are  numbered  among  its  members. 

It  may  be  said  truthfully  that  the  Marey 
Institute  has  anticipated  all  the  great  develop- 
ments that  have  been  made  during  recent  years 
concerning  the  instructional  or  informative  side 
of  film  production.  Unfortunately  the  original 
investigations  were  made  so  long  ago,  before 
the  possibilities  of  animated  photography  were 


252    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

appreciated,  that  they  have  been  forgotten  by, 
or  are  unknown  to,  the  present  generation. 
Many  an  inventor,  enthusiastic  about  a  develop- 
ment which  he  has  perfected  in  the  art,  has 
received  a  rude  shock  when  his  work  became 
public  and  he  learned  that  he  had  been  forestalled 
years  before  at  the  Marey  Institute. 

Nearly  all  of  the  so-called  scientific  films, 
which  arouse  widespread  interest  to-day,  were 
prepared  originally  at  the  Marey  Institute.  The 
combination  of  the  cinematograph  with  the 
microscope,  the  X-rays,  and  other  apparatus, 
the  recording  of  the  growth  of  plants  and  animals, 
the  photographing  of  rapid  movements  all  these 
were  demonstrated  at  this  establishment  a 
generation  ago. 

Surely  what  has  been  possible  at  a  French 
establishment  is  not  beyond  the  resources  of 
other  countries  ?  When  one  recalls  the  valuable 
assistance  given  to  science  by  the  French 
Institute,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  other 
countries  to  emulate  the  idea,  and  to  establish 
national  institutions  for  a  similar  purpose. 
Animated  photography  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
Its  educational  and  scientific  possibilities  are 
scarcely  yet  realised.  There  were  many  years 
during  which  no  one  realised  the  full  advantages 
of  ordinary  photography  in  the  provinces  of 
investigation  and  experiment,  and  animated 


NATIONAL  LABORATORIES        253 

photography  is  passing  through  a  similar  phase. 
This  is  largely  because  of  the  showman,  who 
is  enterprising,  and  has  captured  the  fort  for 
himself.  Probably  no  other  industry  has  been 
responsible  for  the  creation  of  so  many  million- 
aires in  so  short  a  period,  yet  there  is  no 
industry  which  can  render  so  great  a  service  to 
science. 

It  should  not  be  difficult  to  establish  national 
institutions,  on  Marey's  lines,  in  every  country 
which  has  great  industrial  and  commercial 
interests  at  stake.  So  far  as  Great  Britain  is 
concerned  it  might  be  attached  to  the  National 
Physical  Laboratory  at  Teddington.  This  estab- 
lishment has  an  extensive  array  of  scientific 
apparatus  of  all  descriptions  capable  of  being 
utilised  in  conjunction  with  the  moving-picture 
camera,  so  that  the  additional  outlay  would  not 
be  excessive.  Not  only  would  it  be  possible  to 
utilise  the  invention  in  connection  with  existing 
experiments,  but  independent  and  original  investi- 
gation could  be  undertaken.  There  are  many 
points  of  science  which  can  be  determined  only 
by  moving-pictures.  Although  Marey  covered 
the  ground  very  completely  during  his  lifetime, 
as  a  perusal  of  "Movement"  will  show,  many 
new  spheres  of  application  have  appeared  since 
his  time.  It  is  quite  possible  that  if  some  of 
his  investigations  were  repeated  in  the  light  of 


254    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

later  knowledge,  the  new  results  would  be  quite 
as  striking  as  the  old. 

In  Germany  the  cinematographic  laboratory 
might  be  attached  to  the  world-famed  testing- 
laboratory  at  Charlottenburg.  At  present, 
although  the  recording  instruments  in  use  are 
of  a  most  modern  and  perfect  description,  there 
are  innumerable  instances  where  improvement 
might  be  effected  by  photographic  methods. 
The  German  military  authorities  were  not  slow 
to  appreciate  the  value  of  Professor  Cranz's 
system  of  photographing  projectiles  in  flight. 
Directly  the  initial  experiments  were  concluded 
the  work  was  taken  up  by  the  War  Department. 
Although  certain  particulars  of  the  apparatus 
employed  and  its  method  of  operation  have 
been  published,  the  essential  details  have  been 
kept  secret.  It  is  admitted  that  the  method 
evolved  by  Cranz  is  imperfect  in  certain  features, 
but  the  authorities  have  the  germ  of  a  useful 
invention,  and  are  now  developing  it  indepen- 
dently. In  Italy  also  the  value  of  the  cinemato- 
graph is  being  appreciated  in  a  certain  direction. 
The  Minister  of  Marine  has  established  a  special 
department  of  photography  and  cinematography 
in  Rome,  after  personal  investigation  of  the 
utility  of  the  invention  during  the  naval 
manoeuvres. 

The   United  States   of  America  has  been  no 


NATIONAL  LABORATORIES        255 

more  progressive  than  Great  Britain  in  giving 
recognition  to  animated  photography,  but  there 
are  indications  that  this  lethargic  attitude  is  to 
be  abandoned  Certain  influential  interests  have 
suggested  the  establishment  of  a  cinematographic 
bureau  of  standards,  emphasising  the  usefulness 
of  the  invention  for  supplying  measurements  of 
time  and  work.  Apart  from  this  movement  other 
independent  enthusiasts  have  recommended  the 
formation  of  moving-picture  laboratories  in 
connection  with  the  various  training  institutions, 
so  that  students  might  be  trained  on  the  correct 
lines.  Doubtless  the  perfection  of  continuous- 
record  cinematography,  and  of  cameras  capable 
of  working  at  the  highest  speeds,  will  stimulate 
the  movement,  for  they  provide  a  method  of 
getting  information  which  even  the  cinematograph 
has  not  hitherto  been  able  to  give. 

There  are  a  thousand  problems  incidental  to 
industry  and  commerce  which  now  defy  solution, 
but  could  be  solved  by  animated  photography. 
Aviation,  which  at  present  is  occupying  the 
attention  of  every  nation,  is  a  case  in  point.  The 
mechanical  part  of  the  science  has  been  investi- 
gated minutely  but  little  progress  has  been  made 
in  studying  the  effect  of  the  air  upon  the  planes, 
so  as  to  discover  the  best  forms  of  cutting  edge. 
Present  endeavour  is  content  to  work  upon  the 
results  obtained  by  Marey  with  his  chrono- 


256    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

photographic  apparatus  some  twenty  years  ago. 
No  attempt  has  been  made  to  ascertain  whether 
it  is  possible  to  improve  upon  his  work,  or  to 
determine  whether  the  data  he  gathered  is  in 
need  of  modification.  Another  field  of  investiga- 
tion is  in  regard  to  the  testing  of  metals,  woods, 
and  other  materials,  to  discover  their  behaviour 
under  varying  degrees  of  strain. 

A  national  cinematographic  laboratory  need 
not  be  expensive  either  to  establish  nor  to 
maintain.  The  Marey  Institute  might  be  taken 
as  a  model.  After  the  death  of  Marey,  in  1905, 
the  means  of  carrying  on  the  institution  were 
completely  reorganised.  The  work  it  was 
accomplishing  was  recognised  as  being  too 
valuable  to  be  allowed  to  cease.  The  French 
Government  took  up  the  question  and  decided 
to  grant  an  annual  subvention  of  £960  ($4,800). 
The  German,  Swiss,  Russian,  and  other  Govern- 
ments, as  well  as  various  scientific  institutions  of 
all  nations,  also  decided  to  subscribe  regularly 
to  its  support.  In  this  way,  with  the  addition  of 
some  private  subscriptions,  about  £1,500  ($7,500) 
is  contributed  annually.  Other  contributions  are 
made  in  kind,  such  as  the  film,  all  of  which  is 
given  by  the  firm  of  Lumiere. 

Considering  the  work  accomplished  by  the 
Marey  Institute  it  is  maintained  very  economically. 
The  annual  expenses  average  about  £1,200  or 


NATIONAL  LABORATORIES       257 

$6,000.  The  paid  staff  comprises  the  assistant  sub- 
director  and  an  assistant,  two  highly  skilled 
mechanics,  and  one  or  two  minor  officials,  the 
important  posts  being  filled  honorarily. 

Private  investigators  are  encouraged  to  use 
the  Institute  and  its  equipment.  The  scientific 
institutions  of  the  different  countries  are  given 
certain  facilities  in  return  for  a  small  payment. 
Thus  an  annual  subscription  of  £40  ($200)  entitles 
the  representative  of  an  institution  to  the  widest 
use  of  the  laboratory.  He  is  not  only  given  free 
and  unrestricted  use  of  all  the  apparatus,  but  is 
provided  with  a  bedroom,  so  that  his  expenses 
are  reduced  to  disbursements  upon  meals 
and  other  personal  requirements.  Everything 
requisite  for  his  study,  as  well  as  accessories, 
such  as  light,  film,  developers,  etc.,  are  provided 
free  of  charge. 

The  laboratory  is  well  provided  with  all  sorts 
of  appliances.  There  are  cameras  of  various 
designs  adapted  to  special  classes  of  work,  dark 
rooms  for  developing,  rooms  for  experiments, 
a  workshop  with  skilled  mechanics,  a  library 
stocked  with  literature  bearing  upon  cinema- 
tography and  its  relation  to  the  sciences,  and  a 
large  and  lofty  hall  furnished  with  a  projector 
and  screen.  As  the  Institute  stands  in  its  own 
grounds  of  over  3,000  square  yards,  there  are 
ample  facilities  for  out-door  investigations. 

p.c.  s 


258    PRACTICAL   CINEMATOGRAPHY 

The  experimenter  at  this  Institution  has 
advantages  placed  at  his  disposal  which  will 
not  be  found  elsewhere  in  any  other  part  of 
the  world.  The  majority  of  the  appliances  have 
been  designed  by  the  staff  mechanics,  and  in 
their  manufacture  extreme  ingenuity  has  been  dis- 
played. Much  of  the  apparatus  might  possibly 
provide  an  income  in  the  form  of  royalties  if  it 
were  commercially  exploited.  But  it  is  a  rule 
of  the  Institute  that  no  instrument  may  be 
patented.  Its  work  is  for  the  benefit  of  all. 

Undoubtedly  the  near  future  will  see  the 
foundation  of  national  cinematographic  labora- 
tories in  some  form  or  other.  The  value  of 
animated  photography  is  not  yet  appreciated. 
Directly  the  sciences  realise  its  significance,  and 
see  that  it  constitutes  an  indispensable  aid  to 
investigation  and  research,  the  invention  will  be 
given  the  recognition  it  deserves.  Then  it  will 
be  turned  into  more  useful  channels  than  at 
present.  Individual  investigation  will  be 
encouraged,  and  discoveries  more  wonderful  than 
any  of  which  we  know  will  be  made. 


INDEX 


AEROSCOPE,  the,  hand  camera, 

tions    and    opportuni- 

55—57 

ties,    I  —  12,  21  —  34,   92 

Aldrich,   Mr.    J.   G.,   and  the 

—  93,     125,     133  —  134, 

use  of  micro-motion,  176 

212  —  213,    220  —  221  ; 

Alpha  camera,  22  —  23 
Aurora   Borealis,    attempt   to 

picture  plays,  225  —  237 
(ft)  scientific  value  of.     See 

film  the,  1  86 
Automatic       cameras.        See 

Scientific  investigation. 
(c)  Educational  value.     See 

under  Cameras. 

Educational  films. 

(d)  in  conjunction  with  the 

X-rays.        See    Radio- 

BRUCE,  Colonel,  study  of  sleep- 
ing sickness,  195 
Bull,      M.      Lucien,      optical 
illusions  explained,  96—107  ; 
experiments    with    a    bee, 
119  —  1  20  ;       continuous- 

cinematography. 
(e)  in  conjunction  with  the 
microscope.    See  Micro- 
cinematography. 
Claw,  the,  26  —  27  ;  movement 
described,    29  —  30  ;     single 

record  camera,  137  ;    study 
of  ballistics,  190 

claw,  31 
Comandon,    Dr.    Jean,    147  — 
148  ;    system  described  and 

illustrated  157  —  160  ;  inves- 

tigations  with   ultra-micro- 

CAMERAS, automatic,  54  —  59  ; 

scope    described    and    illus- 

cost    of,     7  —  10,     22  —  24  ; 
directions  for  use,  35  —  50  ; 

V»*»nH    ram^ra      en  c-5   •     liior'h 

trated,  1  68  —  172,  195 
Continuous  records.     See  Re- 

rnrH«    rnn-Hnnrmc 

speed  cameras,  109,  112 — 
116  ;  118 — 120,  mechanism 
explained,  25 — 34 

Cardiograph,  the,  249 

Carvallo,  M.  M.  J.,  147 — 148  ; 
apparatus  described  and 
illustrated,  149 — 152  ;  scien- 
tific experiments,  154 — 156 

Chrpnophotography,  136 — 146; 
discovery  of,  249 ;  the 
chronoscope,  in — 112 

Chronoscope,  the,  in — 112 

Cinematography — 

(a)  for  the  amateur,  attrac- 


Cooke  lens,  23 

Cranz,  Dr.,  of  Berlin,  military 
academy,  109 ;  apparatus 
invented  by,  190 — 193,  254 

Crookes'  tube,  153 


DALLMEYER  lens,  23 

Dastre,  Dr.,  of  the  Sorbonne, 
172 

Demeny,  Georges,  143  ;  inves- 
tigation with  the  continuous 
record,  144 — 145 

Developing.     See  under  Film. 


260 


INDEX 


Driving  gear,  31 — 32 
Drum,  the,  76 


EASTMAN  Company,  stock,  63, 
78  ;  developing  solution,  70 

Educational  films,  209 — 223 

Einthoven,  Professor  (Dutch 
scientist),  137  ;  chronopho- 
tography,  142 

Equilibrator  of  hand  camera, 
56 

Experiments  and  investiga- 
tions :  study  of  bacteria, 
168 — 172  ;  filming  of  a  bee, 
219  ;  with  continuous 
records,  140 — 145  ;  study  of 
functions  of  digestion,  15.- 
— 156  ;  flight  of  projectiles, 
191 — 193  ;  filming  of  a 
kingfisher,  217 — 218  ;  in 
micro-motion,  177 — 180  ;  by 
an  ophthalmic  surgeon,  193  ; 
growth  of  plants,  124 — 129  ; 
technical,  187,  188 — 189. 
See  also  Scientific  investi- 
gations. 

Exposure,  length  of,  43 — 47 


FILM  (unexposed),  cost,  12  ; 
description,  n  ;  developing, 
65—74,  ?8  ;  drying,  75—77  ; 
Eastman  stock,  63  ;  fixing, 
74 — 75  ;  the  indicator,  42  ; 
loading  the  box,  35 — 37  ; 
matt  film,  38 — 39  ;  thread- 
ing, 28 — 29  (ill.),  39 — 41  ; 
printing,  79 — 93  ;  special 
for  Carvallo  apparatus,  153  ; 
winding,  77 

Film  jointer,  37 

Film-pictures  :  prices,  5 — 7, 
217 — 221 

Fixing-bath,  formula,  74 

Focus-lamp,  89 

Focussing,  30 — 31,  38  ;  effect 
of  length  of  exposure,  47 

Formulae :  Eastman  developer, 
70 ;  restrainer  for  over- 


exposed films,  71  ;  fixing 
bath,  74  ;  soaking  solution, 
75 

"  French  Cradle  of  Cinema- 
tography," 251 

Fiichs,  Dr.  Otto,  investiga- 
tions, i 88 — 190 


GATE,    the,    described,    29 
Gaumont,    Company,    picture 

plays,  241 

Geneva  stop  movement,  26 
Gilbreth,  Mr.  Frank  B.,   143  ; 

micro-motion   study,    1 75 — 

184 
"  Graphic  Method,  The,"  book 

by  E.  J.  Marey,  249 
"  Great  White  Scourge,  The  " 

(film),  222 
Gun,  photographic,  250 


"  HAMLET,"   filming   of   play, 

242 
Hand     camera.       See     under 

Cameras. 

Health  films,  222 — 223 
Herkomer,    Sir    Hubert    von, 

and  picture  plays,  243 — 247 
High-speed       cameras.        See 

under  Cameras. 


ILLUMINANT,    130 — 132,    190  ; 

in      micro-cinematography, 

167,  170 
International    Institution    for 

Cinematographic    Research, 

250 — 251.     See   also  Marey 

Institute. 
Interrupter,      158 — 159  ;       of 

Cranz  apparatus,  191 
Iris  diaphragm,  use  illustrated, 

45  ;    table  of  stops,  46 — 47 


JANNSEN'S    astronomical    re- 
volver, 249 — 250 
Jury  autocam,  58 — 59 


INDEX 


261 


Jury    duplex,    80 ;     printing 

apparatus,  82 — 85 
Jury  outfit,  10 


KBARTON,  Mr.  Cherry,  jungle 
pictures,  5.  53  ;  use  of 
aeroscope,  55 


LENS,  the,  23 — 25  ;  iris  dia- 
phragm, 43 — 47  ;  for  radio- 
cinematography,  1 60 

"  Life  of  a  Moorhen  "  (film), 

221 

"  Life  Target,  the,"  apparatus, 

201 — 207 
Lnmiere  Brothers,  172,  256 


MAREY,  Dr.  E.  J.,  in — 114. 
249 — 250  ;  physiological 
research,  195 

Marey  Institute,  founding  of. 
248 — 252  ;  later  develop- 
ment, 256 — 258  ;  micro- 
cinematography,  166—168  ; 
radio-cinematography.  147 
— 156  ;  slow-movement 
records,  125 — 130 

Mason.  J.  C.  Bee,  films  of 
insect  life,  219 

Matt  film,  38 — 39 

Mechanics  and  cinemato- 
graphy, 187 — 190 

Micro-cinematography,    161 — 

*73 

Micro-motion  study,  174 — 184 

Military  value  of  cinema- 
tography, 197 — 208 

Motograph  Film  Co.,  edu- 
cational films,  220 

"  Movement,"  book  by  E.  J. 
Marey,  185 

Movement,  intermittent,  26 — 
31 

"  Movies."  the.  22 

P.C. 


Muybridge,  investigator,  250 


NATIONAL  Cinematographic 
Laboratories,  a  plea  for,  248, 

National  Physical  Laboratory 

at  Teddington,  253 
New  England  Butt  Co.,  176 — 

1 80 

New  Era  camera,  22 
Newman,  Mr.  Frank  A.,  217 
Nogues,    M.    M.    P.,    camera 

described    and    illustrated, 

114;    claw   motion  device, 

153 

ODOGRAPH,  the,  249 

"  One-turn-one-picture,"  prin- 
ciple. 125,  133 

Optical  illusion.  13 — 14  ;  illu- 
sions described  and  ex- 
plained, 95 — 107 

"  Out-position  "  of  claw,  29 

Over-exposed  film,  restrainer 
for,  71 

PATERSON      and      Musgnve, 

Messrs..  198 — 201 
Path6  Freres.  156,  169 
Paul.  Mr.  Robert.  26 
Persistence  of  vision,  law  of, 

14, 122 

Photographic  gun,  250 
Photo  play.     Set  Picture  play. 
Physiological  Institute.  Paris. 

*95 
Picture   palace   as   illustrated 

newspaper,  2 
Picture  play,  224 — 226  ;  hints 

on  construction,  227 — 234  ; 

warning  to  amateurs,  234 — 

235  ;  commercial  value,  235 

— 237 

"  Pin  "  frame,  67—68  (ill.) 
Pneumograph.  the,  249 
Printing,  79 — 93 
Proszynski,  Kasimir  de,  54 — 

Punch,  the,  42 


262 


INDEX 


RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY,  147 
— 1 60 

Rainey,  Paul,  9 

Rapid  movement,  record  of, 
108 — 116  ;  projection  of, 
117 — 122 

Records,  continuous,  136  ; 
apparatus,  137 — 138  ;  scien- 
tific experiments  with,  139 
—146 

Reinforced  screen,  158 

Revolver,  astronomical,  249 — 
250 

Ries,  Dr.  J.,  investigations,  168 

Robertson,  Sir  Forbes,  in 
picture  play,  242 

Ross  lens,  23 

Ruby  light,  the,  68 


SCIENTIFIC  investigation,  185 
— 196.  See  also  under  Ex- 
periments and  investiga- 
tions. 

Slow  movements,  record  and 
projection  of,  124 — 133 

Soaking  solution  formula,  75 

Speed,  photographic  and  pro- 
jecting, 16 — 20  ;  slowing 
down,  108 — 123  ;  speeding 
up,  124—134 

Spitta,  Dr.,  164 

Spool  winder,  77 


Sprocket,  28  (ill.) 

Stock,  34 

"  String  "  galvanometer,  137 

"  Swat  the  Fly,"  health  film, 


THERMOGRAPH,  the,  249. 
Time  registration,  tuning-fork, 

103 — 107  ;  chronoscope,  in 

— 112 

Trick  films,  difficulties  of,  6 
Tripod,  32—34 
Tuning-fork  control,  103 — 107 


VIEW  finder,  the,  49 


WILLIAMSON,  Mr.  James,  24  ; 
micro  -  cinematographic 
studies,  164 

Williamson  outfit,  10  ;  camera, 
8,  24  —  28  (ill.)  ;  printer, 
80,  85 — 87  (ill.)  ;  focussing, 
30,  38,  47  ;  mounting,  31  ; 
driving  gear,  32  ;  iris  dia- 
phragm, 43 — 46 

X-RAYS  and  cinematography. 
See  Radio-cinematography. 

ZEISS-TESSAR  lens,  23 — 24,  43 


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